PSYC 308 Midterm 2

Charles Darwin, and his notion of evolution, changed the focus of the new psychology from the structure of consciousness to its functions. His theory of evolution spurred the study of the behavior of animals (Descartes had stated animals had no similarity with humans, while Wundt also thought that animals might be as mentally well endowed as humans.).

Galton

• Reported on hereditary genius
• Founded the Science of Eugenics
• Argued eminence was solely a function of heredity, not opportunity
• His work in statistics yielded one of science’s most important measures: the correlation.
• Many of his tests served as prototypes for standard lab equipment

James

• In The Principles of Psychology, James presents that the goal of psychology is not the discovery of the elements of experience, as Wundt and Titchener had argued, but rather the study of living people as they adapt to their environment. The function of consciousness is to guide us to those ends required for survival. Without it, human evolution could not have occurred.
• Stream of consciousness: William James's idea that consciousness is a continuous flowing process and that any attempt to reduce it to elements will distort it.
• James distinguished between conscious choice and habit (which were involuntary)
• Pragmatism: The doctrine that the validity of ideas is measured by their practical consequences.
• His theory of emotions contradicted the current thinking at the time, he believed the arousal of the physical response (rapid heart rate, muscle tension etc) comes before the emotion (fear).
• Suggested sense of self had 3 components:
  • Material self: consists of everything we call uniquely our own, body, family, home, style
  • Social self: recognition we get from others
  • Spiritual self: inner or subjective being
• Believed all creatures are “bundles of habit”, repititive/habitual actions involved the nervous system and increase the plasticity of neural matter, which results in habits becoming easier to perform on subsequent repetitions and require less conscious attention
• He argued that habits have enormous social implication

Angell

• The goal of psychology is to study how the mind assists the organism in adjusting to its environment
• The function of consciousness es to improve the organisms adaptive abilities
• Themes of the Functional Movement:
  • 1. Functional psychology is the psychology of mental operations, in contrast to structur- alism, which is the psychology of mental elements. Titchener's elementistic approach still had its supporters, and Angell was promoting functionalism in direct opposition to it. The task of functionalism is to discover how a mental process operates, what it accomplishes, and under what conditions it occurs.
  • 2. Functional psychology is the psychology of the fundamental utilities of consciousness. Thus, consciousness is viewed in a utilitarian spirit as it mediates between the needs of the organism and the demands of the environment. Structures and functions of the organism exist because they allow the organism to adapt to its environment and thus to survive. Angell suggested that because consciousness has survived, it must therefore perform some essential service for the organism. Functional psychologists needed to discover precisely what this service was.
  • 3. Functional psychology is the psychology of psychophysical relations (mind-body relations) and is concerned with the total relationship of the organism to its environment. Functionalism encompasses all mind-body functions and recognizes no real distinction between mind and body. It considers them as belonging to the same order and assumes an easy transfer from one to the other.

Criticisms of Functionalism

• Tichener argued that functionalism was not psychology as it did not adhere to structuralism subject matter and methods (introspective analysis)
• Structuralists didn’t like that the functionalists’ interests in practical concerns

Mental age: The age at which children of average ability can perform certain tasks.

Gestalt Revolt:

• Gestalt psychologists referred to Wundt’s approach (as they understood it) as “brick- and-mortar psychology,” implying that the elements (the bricks) were held together by the mortar of the association process. They argued that when we look out a window we really see trees and sky, not individual sensory elements such as brightness and hue that may be somehow connected to constitute our perception of trees and sky.
• Further, the Gestalt psychologists maintained that when sensory elements are com- bined, the elements form a new pattern or configuration. If you put together a group of individual musical notes (musical elements), for example, a melody or tune emerges from their combination, something new that did not exist in any of the individual elementary notes. The popular way to state this notion is that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. In fairness to Wundt, it should be noted that he recognized this point with his doc- trine of creative synthesis. The Gestalt psychologists, however, made it the central point of their revolution.

Phenomenology: An approach to knowledge based on an unbiased description of immediate experience as it occurs, not analyzed or reduced to elements.

Fields of force: Regions or spaces traversed by lines of force, such as of a magnet or electric current.

Phi phenomenon: The illusion that two stationary flashing lights are moving from one place to another.

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization:

1. Proximity
2. Contiuity
3. Similarity
4. Closure
5. Simplicity
6. Figure/Ground

• These organizing principles do not depend on higher mental processes or past experiences but are present in the stimuli themselves. Wertheimer called them peripheral factors, but he also recognized that central factors within the organism influence perception. For example, we know that the higher mental processes of familiarity and attitude can affect perception. In general, however, the Gestalt psychologists focused more on the peripheral factors of perceptual organization than on the effects of learning or experience.

Darwin & Evolution

1. What do we mean by saying that according to Aristotle, there is a Natural State or Ideal Type beneath the diversity that exists between individuals?

• According to Aristotle, the Natural State or Ideal Type refers to an inherent essence or perfect form that underlies the diversity seen among individual organisms. This concept implies that there is a specific, ideal version of each species that individuals strive towards.

2. What prevents individuals from achieving their Natural State?

• Various factors, such as environmental conditions, genetic anomalies, or developmental issues, can prevent individuals from achieving their Natural State. Aristotle believed that external conditions and internal imperfections could hinder the realization of this ideal form.

3. What did variation between individuals of a species represent according to Aristotle? According to Darwin?

• Aristotle: Variation was seen as a deviation from the perfect form or Ideal Type due to imperfections or environmental influences.
• Darwin: Variation was considered a natural and essential aspect of life, providing the raw material for natural selection. Differences among individuals are critical for evolution, as they determine which traits are more successful in a given environment.

4. According to Lamarck, what was the agent of evolutionary change? How did this agent exert its effects?

• According to Lamarck, the agent of evolutionary change was the use and disuse of organs or traits. Traits that were used frequently would become stronger and more developed, while those that were not used would atrophy.

5. According to Lamarck, how were changes passed on to descendants?

• Lamarck proposed that changes acquired during an organism's lifetime (due to use and disuse) could be passed on to its descendants. For example, a giraffe stretching its neck to reach higher leaves would result in its offspring having longer necks.

6. Lamarck argues that will or conscious intention are not necessary for the inheritance of acquired traits. Why?

• Lamarck argued that the inheritance of acquired traits does not require conscious intention or will. Traits acquired through habitual use or disuse naturally become more or less pronounced and are then inherited by offspring through a natural, automatic process.

7. In what ways do Natural selection and Sexual selection interact?

• Natural selection and sexual selection interact in that traits advantageous for survival (natural selection) may also be attractive to mates (sexual selection). Conversely, traits that are sexually attractive might sometimes compromise survival, leading to a complex interplay between the two types of selection.

8. According to Darwin, altruistic behaviour benefits the group rather than the individual. Explain how.

• Darwin suggested that altruistic behavior benefits the group because it enhances the survival and reproductive success of related individuals within the group. By helping relatives, an individual indirectly ensures the propagation of shared genes.

9. How did Darwin explain the development of intellect?

• Darwin explained the development of intellect through the gradual accumulation of beneficial traits. Cognitive abilities that provided survival advantages, such as problem-solving and communication, would be naturally selected over generations.

10. What evidence is there that at least in part, Darwin was right?

• Evidence supporting Darwin includes the fossil record showing gradual changes over time, genetic studies demonstrating common ancestry, and observations of natural selection in action (e.g., peppered moths, antibiotic resistance).

11. How does the Baldwin effect relate to Darwin’s theory of how instincts develop?

• The Baldwin effect suggests that learned behaviors can eventually become instinctual. Traits that enhance an organism’s ability to learn and adapt to the environment are naturally selected, leading to the development of instincts over time.

12. What is the difference between the Baldwin Effect and the explanation given by modern psychology on the development of instinctual behaviour?

• The Baldwin effect emphasizes the role of learning in shaping instincts, whereas modern psychology often focuses on genetic predispositions and environmental influences in the development of instinctual behaviors.

13. What was Darwin’s opinion on emotional expressions?

• Darwin believed that emotional expressions were evolved traits that served adaptive functions. He suggested that such expressions were universal among humans and had origins in animal behavior.

14. What were the three principles Darwin used to explain the origin of emotional expressions?

• Serviceable Habits: Expressions that serve a practical function and have been reinforced through evolution.
• Antithesis: Opposite emotions often have opposite expressions.
• Direct Action of the Nervous System: Some expressions are the result of the body's direct physiological response to emotions.

James & Functionalism

15. What is meant by the claim that Consciousness is an “Epiphenomenon”?

• The claim that consciousness is an “epiphenomenon” means that it is a byproduct of brain processes without direct causal influence on physical actions.

16. James stated that consciousness is most needed in animals with complex nervous systems. What was his argument for such?

• James argued that consciousness is most needed in animals with complex nervous systems because it allows for more sophisticated decision-making and adaptation to complex environments.

17. Was James’ view on the development of consciousness teleological? What about conscious action?

• James did not view the development of consciousness as teleological (having a purpose or end-goal). However, he acknowledged that conscious actions can have directed purposes and intentionality.

18. How might consciousness affect the physical evolution of an animal?

• Consciousness might affect the physical evolution of an animal by influencing behavior in ways that enhance survival and reproductive success, potentially leading to the selection of traits associated with higher cognitive functions.

19. What is an affordance?

• An affordance refers to the potential actions that an object or environment allows an organism to perform. It is a concept from ecological psychology introduced by James Gibson.

20. Does an object have different affordances for different organisms, or does it have simultaneously all affordances? In what manner are these computed?

• An object has different affordances for different organisms based on their capabilities and needs. These affordances are perceived and computed based on the interaction between the organism and its environment.

21. According to James, how did Attention affect affordances?

• According to James, attention affects affordances by focusing on specific aspects of the environment, thereby highlighting certain potential actions over others.

22. In what way does ideomotor theory, according to James, allow for the selection of a single affordance from competing alternatives?

• Ideomotor theory suggests that thinking about a movement or action increases the likelihood of its execution. This allows for the selection of a single affordance from competing alternatives by making the thought of one action more dominant.

23. In what way do emotions contribute to ideomotor theory? How would this affect selection of a response?

• Emotions contribute to ideomotor theory by influencing which actions are more likely to be selected. Positive emotions might enhance the selection of certain affordances, while negative emotions might inhibit them.

24. What is the Material self? Social self? Spiritual self?

• Material Self: Physical body and possessions.
• Social Self: Interactions and relationships with others.
• Spiritual Self: Inner self, including thoughts, beliefs, and feelings.

25. How did the “I” relate to consciousness?

• The “I” refers to the self as the subject of experiences and actions, playing a central role in self-awareness and personal identity within consciousness.

Galton & Regression to the Mean

30. How did the prevailing view of statisticians in the 19th century relate to Aristotle’s Natural State Model?

• The prevailing view of statisticians in the 19th century was influenced by Aristotle’s idea of a Natural State or Ideal Type. They sought to find the “true value” or average state in measurements, viewing deviations as errors.

31. How does the notion of “statistical noise” relate to the concept of “interfering forces”, and how does the notion of the “true value" of a set of measurements relate to the concept of a “natural state” or “ideal type”?

• Statistical noise refers to random variations in data, akin to Aristotle’s interfering forces that prevent individuals from reaching their Natural State. The true value of measurements represents the ideal type or natural state.

32. Why are there errors in measurements we take?

• Errors occur due to limitations in measurement tools, observer bias, environmental factors, and inherent variability in the phenomena being measured.

33. What does a frequency plot represent?

• A frequency plot represents the distribution of data points, showing how often each value occurs within a dataset.

34. What is the Law of Errors?

• The Law of Errors describes the statistical distribution of measurement errors, typically following a normal (bell-shaped) distribution, with most errors being small and fewer large deviations.

35. Nowadays, what measure would be conceptually considered as the “true value”? The “interfering forces”?

• The true value conceptually aligns with the mean or expected value in modern statistics. Interfering forces are represented by variability or deviations from this mean.

36. What does Gauss’ frequency plot measure?

• Gauss’ frequency plot measures the distribution of errors or deviations from the true value, typically resulting in a normal distribution.

37. What led Quetelet to assume that the Law of Errors applied to any measured attribute?

• Quetelet assumed that the Law of Errors applied to any measured attribute because he believed that human traits and social phenomena could be analyzed statistically like physical measurements.

38. Why was individual differences considered an irrelevant study?

• Individual differences were considered irrelevant because statisticians focused on finding the average or typical characteristics, viewing deviations as errors or noise rather than meaningful variations.

39. According to Quetelet, what was the difference between an accidental cause, a constant cause, and variable cause?

• Accidental Cause: Random, unpredictable influences on measurements.
• Constant Cause: Systematic, predictable factors affecting measurements.
• Variable Cause: Factors that cause variation but follow a regular pattern.

40. What is “Regression to the mean”? How does this relate to Quetelt’s “causes” and “true score”?

• Regression to the mean is the tendency for extreme values to move closer to the average upon repeated measurements. This relates to Quetelet’s causes in that it accounts for variability around the true score, with accidental causes leading to deviations that average out over time.

41. According to Galton, why do attributes demonstrate Regression Toward the Mean? What is the correct explanation?

• According to Galton, attributes regress toward the mean due to the influence of many factors that pull extreme values back towards the average. The correct explanation involves statistical principles where extreme deviations are less likely to be repeated due to random variability.

42. If Regression Toward the Mean is correct, how is it that we obtain a bell-curve?

• A bell-curve, or normal distribution, results because most data points cluster around the mean, with fewer extreme values. Regression to the mean ensures that extreme values are less frequent, contributing to this distribution shape.

43. What is the correlation coefficient? What does it represent?

• The correlation coefficient is a statistical measure that indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables. It ranges from -1 to 1.

44. What is the maximum value of the correlation coefficient? What does that represent?

• The maximum value of the correlation coefficient is 1, representing a perfect positive linear relationship between two variables.

Alfred Binet & Intelligence Testing

45. What are the inherent limitations that apply to all IQ tests?

• Inherent limitations include cultural bias, the influence of socio-economic factors, and variability in test performance due to external factors like test anxiety or environmental conditions.

46. What does it mean if a test is Standardized? Normed? Valid?

• Standardized: A test administered and scored consistently across all test-takers.
• Normed: A test that has established norms or average scores based on a representative sample.
• Valid: A test that accurately measures what it claims to measure.

47. In what way can a test be biased? How does this relate to the concepts above?

• A test can be biased if it favors certain groups over others due to cultural, linguistic, or socioeconomic factors. This relates to standardization, norming, and validity because a biased test may not be valid or appropriately normed for all groups.

48. What is meant by the term “Group Factor”?

• A group factor refers to a specific ability or trait measured by a subset of items within a broader intelligence test, indicating a common underlying factor.

49. How are group factors measured? Why would this be the case?

• Group factors are measured through factor analysis, which identifies clusters of related items within a test. This helps in understanding the underlying abilities or traits being assessed.

50. Looking at the figure depicting the factors on the WAIS, which parts represent the factors, and which parts represent the individual tests? How many factors are there?

• In the WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), factors represent broader cognitive abilities (e.g., verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning), while individual tests assess specific skills within these factors. There are typically four main factors.

51. In what way does the statistical methodology applied to deriving the clusters on the WAIS differ from the measures used by previous intelligence tests?

• The statistical methodology for deriving clusters on the WAIS involves factor analysis, which is more sophisticated than earlier methods that relied on simpler measures like total scores or subtest comparisons.

52. How is it some studies find no effect of environment on IQ, but other studies find a substantial impact of environment on IQ?

• Some studies find no effect of environment on IQ due to genetic influences being predominant, while others find a substantial impact of environment due to factors like education, nutrition, and socioeconomic status. Differences in study design and sample populations can account for these discrepancies.

Phenomenology

53. In what way is Phenomenology different from other philosophies in Psychology?

• Phenomenology focuses on the direct experience of phenomena, emphasizing subjective perception and consciousness. Unlike other philosophies, it seeks to describe how things appear to consciousness without reducing them to objective measurements or theoretical constructs.

54. What phenomenon provided evidence that experience was different than measurement? In what way?

• The phenomenon of optical illusions, such as the Müller-Lyer illusion, provides evidence that subjective experience can differ from objective measurement. These illusions demonstrate that perception is influenced by cognitive processes beyond simple sensory input.

55. Describe the difference between the two kinds of apparent motion.

• Beta Movement: Perceived motion resulting from the rapid succession of static images.
• Phi Phenomenon: The illusion of motion created when stationary objects appear in alternating positions.

56. Which of the Gestalt rules relate to object recognition? In what way?

• Gestalt rules like similarity, proximity, closure, and continuity relate to object recognition by explaining how the mind organizes sensory input into coherent and recognizable patterns.

57. For each of the rules of perceptual organization, explain what the Gestalt experience is.

• Similarity: Objects that are similar are perceived as grouped together.
• Proximity: Objects that are close to each other are perceived as related.
• Closure: The mind fills in gaps to perceive complete shapes.
• Continuity: Lines and patterns are perceived as continuing in a smooth path.

58. Which of the axioms of Integrated Information Theory relate to how we reflect on our experience? In what way?

• Integrated Information Theory (IIT) axioms like "Information" (how much information a system generates) and "Integration" (how unified the information is) relate to reflecting on experience by explaining how conscious experiences are rich in information and highly integrated.

59. What can be considered components of Conscious experience according to Integrated Information Theory?

• Components include the quantity of information, the integration of information, and the complexity of the relationships within the system.

60. Which of the axioms of Integrated Information Theory relate to each other directly?

• Information and Integration: These axioms are directly related as they both describe essential features of conscious experience.
• Exclusion and Differentiation: These axioms explain how certain experiences are included in consciousness while others are excluded, and how different experiences are distinguished from one another.