Exam 3 - PH 370 Flashcards
Card 1
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Front: What is the infectious pathogen that causes AIDS?
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Back: HIV, a retrovirus that stores genetic information as RNA rather than DNA.1
Card 2
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Front: Describe the structure of HIV.
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Back: HIV has a spherical particle with an external lipid bilayer envelope and an internal protein core that contains RNA, reverse transcriptase, integrase, and protease.1
Card 3
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Front: What are the steps in the HIV life cycle?
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Back:
1.
HIV's gp120 binds to the CD4 receptor on human CD4+ cells and a second binding to WBC coreceptors, CCR5 or CXCR4.2
2.
HIV enters the cell, removes/exposes the capsid, and single-stranded RNA is converted to double-stranded DNA using reverse transcriptase.2
3.
The DNA moves to the nucleus, where it integrates into human DNA via integrase. Viral DNA is copied when human DNA is copied, and viral proteins are produced when human proteins are produced.2
4.
With help from the enzyme protease, viral proteins form new HIV particles, leave the cell, mature, and infect other cells.2
Card 4
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Front: Where and in what population was HIV/AIDS first identified in the US?
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Back: Major cities among young, previously healthy, gay men who reported frequent sexual contact and drug use.3
Card 5
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Front: What is the origin of HIV?
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Back: Chimpanzees in Cameroon.3
Card 6
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Front: How many people have been infected with HIV globally?
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Back: 75.7 million3
Card 7
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Front: How have HIV/AIDS-related deaths trended globally?
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Back: Deaths have been reduced by 60% since the 2004 peak.3
Card 8
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Front: How many new HIV infections are there globally each year?
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Back: 2 million4
Card 9
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Front: How is HIV transmitted?
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Back: Through the exchange of body fluids, including semen, vaginal and cervical fluids, blood, and breast milk.45
Card 10
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Front: What are the signs and symptoms of acute HIV infection?
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Back: Flu-like symptoms such as fever, headache, sore throat, rash, and swollen lymph nodes. This occurs because the HIV viral load is high, but antibodies are just being produced, so the CD4 count is unchanged.5
Card 11
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Front: What are the signs and symptoms of chronic HIV infection?
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Back: This stage is generally asymptomatic and can last for months to years. However, viral replication continues and CD4 cells are destroyed.6
Card 12
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Front: What defines the AIDS stage of HIV infection?
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Back: When the CD4 count drops below 200 for adults. This means the immune system is compromised and unable to fight off infections. People with AIDS are at risk for opportunistic infections.6
Card 13
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Front: What are some diagnostic tests for HIV?
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Back: ELISA test, Western blot, and Viral Load.7
Card 14
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Front: What is the main treatment for HIV?
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Back: HAART, which utilizes multiple medications to target different points in the HIV life cycle to suppress viral replication.7
Card 15
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Front: What are the two main types of medications used in HAART?
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Back: Reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitors.78
Card 16
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Front: What is PrEP and how does it work?
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Back: PrEP is pre-exposure prophylaxis and can be taken by HIV(-) people at high risk for HIV infection. It is a combination of two medications that interfere with HIV's ability to reproduce. When taken daily, it reduces the risk of contracting HIV from sex by 99% and from injecting drug use by 74%.8
Card 17
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Front: What is U=U?
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Back: Undetectable = Untransmissible. Individuals with HIV who achieve and maintain an undetectable viral load do not sexually transmit HIV to others.9
Card 18
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Front: What are other prevention methods for HIV?
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Back: Condoms, educational campaigns about HIV testing and prevention, and clean needle availability programs.9
Card 19
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Front: What is the vector for Malaria?
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Back: The female Anopheles mosquito.10
Card 20
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Front: What are the stages of malaria transmission?
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Back:
1.
An infected mosquito bites a human and the parasite enters the bloodstream.11
2.
The parasite travels to the liver and multiplies (pre-erythrocytic stage).11
3.
Parasites re-enter the bloodstream and infect red blood cells (blood stage).11
4.
When a mosquito bites an infected person, it ingests the parasites and can then transmit them to another person.11
Card 21
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Front: What is the incubation period for Malaria?
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Back: 9-30 days12
Card 22
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Front: What are the symptoms of uncomplicated Malaria?
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Back: Fever, body aches, headache, and diarrhea. These symptoms are non-specific.12
Card 23
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Front: What are the symptoms of severe Malaria?
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Back: Coma or recurrent seizures, severe anemia, respiratory distress, kidney or liver failure, systemic acidosis, or other life-threatening conditions.12
Card 24
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Front: What are some diagnostic tests for current Malaria infection?
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Back: Smear, parasite nucleic acid detection/PCR, and antigen detection/rapid diagnostic tests.13
Card 25
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Front: What is the gold standard for treatment of uncomplicated Malaria?
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Back: Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs).13
Card 26
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Front: What are some public health interventions for Malaria?
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Back: Treating infected people, vector control (indoor residual spraying, larviciding, ITNs), and prevention (preventing human-mosquito contact, preventive pharmacologic treatment, and vaccines).141516
Card 27
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Front: What is the Mosquirix vaccine?
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Back: The first approved malaria vaccine. It works against Plasmodium falciparum and is administered in 4 doses. It can prevent millions of cases and thousands of deaths in children under 5.16
Card 28
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Front: What are the functions of the cardiovascular system?
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Back: To distribute blood to all parts of the body and to transport oxygen and nutrients to tissues and remove carbon dioxide waste from tissues.17
Card 29
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Front: What are the four chambers of the heart?
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Back: The right and left atria and the right and left ventricles.17
Card 30
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Front: What are the two types of circulation in the body?
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Back: Pulmonary circulation (from the heart to the lungs and back) and systemic circulation (from the heart to the rest of the body and back).1819
Card 31
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Front: What is cardiac output?
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Back: The heart's efficiency in pumping optimal amounts of blood. It is calculated by: cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate.20
Card 32
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Front: What are the categories of blood lipid levels?
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Back: LDL, HDL, and triglycerides.2122
Card 33
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Front: What are some diagnostic tests for the heart?
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Back: Auscultation, ECG, echocardiography, exercise tolerance test, cardiac catheterization, and chest radiograph.22
Card 34
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Front: What are some treatments for CVD?
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Back: Surgery (CABG, angioplasty, valve repair), pharmacologic treatment (medications for blood pressure, cholesterol, and heart rate/rhythm), and pacemakers.2324
Card 35
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Front: What are some public health approaches to CVD?
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Back: Risk reduction, health promotion, early identification and treatment, new screening and treatment guidelines, and integrated programs that address shared pathophysiology.24
Card 36
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Front: What are the key processes involved in respiration?
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Back: Ventilation, diffusion, perfusion, and respiration.25
Card 37
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Front: What is the role of the respiratory system in immunity?
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Back: The respiratory epithelium with its cilia plays a role in non-specific immunity.26
Card 38
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Front: Where does gas exchange occur in the lungs?
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Back: In the alveoli.27
Card 39
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Front: What are the symptoms of disrupted respiratory function?
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Back: Chest pain, dyspnea, wheezing, cough, hemoptysis, fatigue, fever, dysphonia, cyanosis, sinus drainage, clubbing of fingers or toes, tachypnea, abnormal breath sounds.28
Card 40
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Front: What is asthma?
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Back: An Ig-E mediated hypersensitivity reaction that causes inflammation in the bronchial tubes, leading to edema and bronchoconstriction, narrowing the airways.29
Card 41
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Front: What are the main types of medications for asthma treatment?
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Back: Relievers, controllers, and preventers.30
Card 42
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Front: What are the functions of the gastrointestinal system?
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Back: Digesting and extracting macronutrients, absorbing nutrients, and forming a barrier against microorganisms.31
Card 43
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Front: What is the suspected etiology of Crohn's disease?
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Back: An interaction of genetics, immune system activation, and environmental factors. It is thought to be an autoimmune condition triggered by bacteria in the digestive tract.31
Card 44
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Front: What are some tools used to diagnose Crohn's disease?
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Back: Blood tests, fecal blood tests, antibody tests, imaging tests (x-rays, CT scans, leukocyte scintigraphy, endoscopy/colonoscopy, MRI).3233
Card 45
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Front: What are the treatment options for Crohn's disease?
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Back: Pharmacotherapy, non-prescription meds, and surgery.3334
Card 46
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Front: How is ulcerative colitis different from Crohn's disease?
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Back: UC is limited to the large intestine, appears in a continuous pattern, and inflammation is limited to the innermost lining. Crohn's can occur anywhere in the GI tract, may appear in patches, and inflammation may extend through the entire bowel wall.3536
Card 47
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Front: What are the major glands in the endocrine system?
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Back: Pituitary gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, endocrine pancreas, and gonads.36
Card 48
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Front: What are the two lobes of the pituitary gland?
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Back: Adenohypophysis (anterior) and neurohypophysis (posterior).37
Card 49
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Front: What are the functions of the hormones LH and FSH in females?
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Back: FSH stimulates egg production and LH stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone. LH surge signals ovulation.38
Card 50
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Front: What is spermatogenesis and where does it occur?
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Back: The process of sperm production, occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.38
Card 51
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Front: What are the roles of estrogen in the body?
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Back: Development of female reproductive organs and breasts, fat distribution, skeletal growth, ovulation, pregnancy support, cervical mucus alteration, hair growth, skin maintenance, bone resorption decrease, and sodium and water retention.39
Card 52
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Front: What are the roles of progesterone in the body?
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Back: Thickens the lining of the uterus for implantation, maintains pregnancy, and elevates core body temperature.40
Card 53
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Front: What are the two phases of ovulation?
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Back: Follicular phase (first half) and luteal phase (second half).41
Card 54
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Front: What is the function of the thyroid gland?
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Back: Secretes thyroid hormone, which affects metabolism, growth and development, and body temperature.42
Card 55
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Front: What is the function of the parathyroid gland?
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Back: Secretes parathyroid hormone, which regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the body.42
Card 56
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Front: What are the functions of the adrenal glands?
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Back: The cortex secretes corticosteroid hormones (mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones) and the medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.4344
Card 57
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Front: What are the functions of the hormones produced by the pancreas?
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Back: Insulin lowers blood glucose levels, glucagon raises blood glucose levels, and somatostatin inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon.44
Card 58
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Front: What are the functions of the hormones produced by the posterior pituitary gland?
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Back: ADH regulates water balance and oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection.4546
Card 59
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Front: What is the primary class of male reproductive hormones and what is its function?
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Back: Androgens, primarily testosterone, which regulates sexual development and function.45
Card 60
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Front: What are the key structures of the female reproductive tract?
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Back: Cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.47
Card 61
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Front: What are the phases of endometrial growth?
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Back: Proliferative phase, secretory phase, and menstrual phase.4849
Card 62
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Front: What are some key hormones related to pregnancy?
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Back: Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, and oxytocin.4650
Card 63
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Front: How does the body control blood glucose levels?
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Back: Through the release of insulin and glucagon from the pancreas.51
Card 64
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Front: What is Type 1 diabetes?
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Back: An autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to little to no insulin production.51
Card 65
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Front: What is Type 2 diabetes?
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Back: A condition where the body becomes resistant to the effects of insulin or doesn't produce enough insulin to maintain normal blood glucose levels.52
Card 66
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Front: What are the risk factors for Type 2 diabetes?
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Back: Family history, overweight, physical inactivity, age, race/ethnicity, gestational diabetes, prediabetes, certain medical conditions, high BP, high cholesterol, smoking.52
Card 67
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Front: What are the signs and symptoms of diabetes?
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Back: Increased thirst and urination, increased hunger, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, weakness, blurred vision, slow-healing sores, frequent infections, darkened skin, tingling/numbness in hands/feet.5354
Card 68
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Front: What are the diagnostic tests for diabetes?
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Back: Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test, 2-hour plasma glucose (2 hr PG) test after a 75g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), and Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test.5455
Card 69
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Front: What are the complications of diabetes?
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Back: CVD, neuropathy, nephropathy, retinopathy, foot problems, skin conditions, hearing impairment, Alzheimer's disease, increased hospitalizations and ED visits, increased mortality
Hormones Flashcards
Card 1
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Front: What is the "master gland" that regulates various bodily functions through the hormones it produces?
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Back: The pituitary gland, which is regulated by the hypothalamus.
Card 2
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Front: What are the 2 lobes of the pituitary gland and what do they produce?
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Back:
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Anterior pituitary: This lobe produces growth hormone (GH), prolactin, and tropic hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands, such as ACTH, TSH, FSH, and LH.
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Posterior pituitary: This lobe produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which regulates water balance, and oxytocin, which plays a role in childbirth and lactation.
Card 3
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Front: What does growth hormone do?
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Back: Growth hormone (GH), produced by the anterior pituitary, affects all parts of the body, promoting tissue growth in organs and bone growth. After puberty, it promotes tissue replacement and repair.
Card 4
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Front: What are gonadotropins, and what are their specific functions?
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Back: Gonadotropins, produced by the anterior pituitary, are hormones that regulate sexual development and function.
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Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Stimulates egg and sperm production.
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Luteinizing hormone (LH): Stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone and the testes to produce testosterone. An LH surge signals ovulation.
Card 5
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Front: What is the primary female sex hormone, where is it produced, and what are its functions?
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Back: Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone. It's secreted throughout the monthly menstrual cycle by the ovaries. Estrogen is essential for the development of female reproductive organs and breasts and plays roles in fat distribution, skeletal growth, ovulation, pregnancy support, and other functions.
Card 6
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Front: What hormone is secreted by the ovaries from ovulation until menses, and what are its functions?
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Back: Progesterone is secreted by the ovaries from ovulation until the onset of menses. It thickens the uterine lining to prepare for implantation and helps maintain pregnancy. It also elevates core body temperature.
Card 7
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Front: What gland secretes thyroid hormone (TH), and what are TH's functions?
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Back: The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormone (TH) under the control of TSH from the pituitary. TH affects metabolism, growth and development, and body temperature.
Card 8
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Front: What does the parathyroid gland secrete, and what does this hormone regulate?
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Back: The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates calcium and phosphate levels.
Card 9
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Front: What are the two parts of the adrenal glands, and what hormones does each part secrete?
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Back: The adrenal glands have an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
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Adrenal Cortex: Secretes corticosteroid hormones, including mineralocorticoids (regulate salt balance), glucocorticoids (regulate metabolism), and sex hormones.
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Adrenal Medulla: Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine in response to stress.
Card 10
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Front: What are the functions of the pancreas in relation to hormones?
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Back: The pancreas is involved in the synthesis, storage, and release of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin.
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Insulin: Lowers blood glucose.
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Glucagon: Raises blood glucose.
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Somatostatin: Inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion.
Cardiovascular Regulation Flashcards
Card 1
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Front: What are baroreceptors, and what role do they play in cardiovascular regulation?
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Back: Baroreceptors are sensors in the arteries that detect changes in blood pressure. If blood pressure is low, they signal the sympathetic nervous system to increase cardiac output and induce vasoconstriction, which raises blood pressure.
Card 2
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Front: What is the function of chemoreceptors in cardiovascular regulation?
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Back: Chemoreceptors respond to changes in blood chemistry, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. They provide feedback to the nervous system, which can alter ventilation and induce vasoconstriction to help maintain homeostasis.
Card 3
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Front: What are some examples of circulating factors that contribute to cardiovascular regulation?
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Back: Enzymes, hormones, plasma proteins, and neurotransmitters circulate in the blood and contribute to cardiovascular regulation. Some examples include:
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Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: Increases blood volume.
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Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): Acts as a vasoconstrictor and increases fluid retention.
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Epinephrine and norepinephrine: Stimulate heart rate and increase vessel tension.
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Acetylcholine: Decreases heart rate.
Gastrointestinal System Flashcards
Card 1
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Front: What are the main functions of the gastrointestinal (GI) system?
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Back: The GI system is responsible for digesting food, absorbing nutrients, and forming a barrier against microorganisms.
Card 2
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Front: What are the two main processes involved in the GI system's handling of food?
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Back:
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Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into absorbable components.
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Absorption: The uptake of nutrients from the digested food into the bloodstream.
Card 3
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Front: Where does most nutrient absorption occur?
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Back: The small intestine is the primary site of nutrient absorption. It has a large surface area due to folds, villi, and microvilli, which enhance absorption. [Information about the structure of the small intestine and the role of villi and microvilli in absorption is not included in the provided sources and may need to be verified.]
Treating Uncomplicated Malaria Flashcards
Card 1
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Front: What is the gold standard treatment for uncomplicated malaria?
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Back: Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs).
Card 2
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Front: Why is treating uncomplicated malaria more difficult in developing countries?
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Back:
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Limited diagnostic capabilities: A scarcity of laboratories leads to clinical diagnoses, which can be inaccurate.
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Access to ACTs: Limited supply, high cost, and weak public health infrastructure hinder access to these essential medications.
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Drug resistance: The emergence of drug resistance complicates treatment.
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Other barriers: Challenges with using insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs), indoor residual spraying, and treatment with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) hinder prevention efforts.