Untitled Flashcards Set

Periodic Table

A tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized by atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, determining its chemical properties.

Atomic Weight

The average mass of atoms of a particular element, typically measured in atomic mass units (amu).

Macronutrients

Nutrients required in large amounts by organisms, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

Micronutrients

Nutrients required in small amounts by organisms, such as vitamins and minerals.

Producers

Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, such as plants and some bacteria.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll.

Chloroplasts

Organelles found in plant cells that are responsible for photosynthesis.

Consumers

Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other organisms, such as animals.

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells break down glucose to release energy in the form of ATP.

Mitochondria

Organelles found in most eukaryotic cells that are responsible for cellular respiration.

Grana

Stacks of thylakoids found within chloroplasts.

Thylakoid

Flattened sacs found within chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll and other pigments involved in photosynthesis.

Stomata

Small pores on the surface of leaves that allow for gas exchange.

Chlorophyll

A green pigment found in plants that is essential for photosynthesis.

Light Reactions

The first stage of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.

Calvin Cycle

The second stage of photosynthesis, where carbon dioxide is fixed and used to synthesize glucose.

NADPH

A coenzyme that carries electrons and hydrogen ions, involved in energy transfer in photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, the main energy currency of cells.

Artificial Selection

The process by which humans select and breed organisms with desired traits.

Prokaryotes

Single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Decomposers

Organisms that break down dead organisms and organic matter, such as bacteria and fungi.

Nitrogen Fixers

Bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants.

Nodules

Swellings on the roots of legumes that contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Crop Rotation

The practice of planting different crops in a field each year to improve soil fertility and reduce pest and disease problems.

Organic Farming

A farming system that avoids the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers.

Angiosperms

Flowering plants that produce seeds enclosed within a fruit.

Leaf

The main photosynthetic organ of a plant, typically consisting of a blade and a petiole.

Blade

The flat, expanded part of a leaf.

Petiole

The stalk that attaches a leaf to a stem.

Stem

The main supporting structure of a plant, transporting water and nutrients between the roots and leaves.

Flower

The reproductive structure of a flowering plant.

Roots

The underground part of a plant that absorbs water and nutrients from the soil.

Monocots

Flowering plants with one cotyledon in their seeds, such as grasses and lilies.

Dicots

Flowering plants with two cotyledons in their seeds, such as beans and roses.

Petals

The colorful parts of a flower that attract pollinators.

Sepals

The outermost whorl of leaves in a flower, often green and protective.

Stigma

The sticky tip of the pistil that receives pollen.

Style

The stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary.

Anther

The part of the stamen that produces pollen.

Pollen

The male reproductive cells of a plant.

Filament

The stalk that supports the anther.

Pollen Tube

A tube that grows from a pollen grain to the ovule, allowing sperm cells to reach the egg cell.

Embryo Sac

The female gametophyte in a flowering plant, containing the egg cell.

Ovary

The part of the pistil that contains the ovules.

Ovule

The structure that contains the female gametophyte and develops into a seed after fertilization.

Cotyledon

The first leaf or leaves of a plant embryo.

Endosperm

The tissue that surrounds and nourishes the plant embryo in a seed.

Fruit

The mature ovary of a flowering plant, often containing seeds.

Exponential Growth

A pattern of growth in which the population size increases rapidly over time.

Limiting Factors

Factors that limit the growth of a population, such as food, water, and space.

Logistic Growth

A pattern of growth in which the population size increases rapidly at first, then slows down and eventually levels off.

Carrying Capacity

The maximum number of individuals that an environment can support.

Biogeochemical Cycle

The movement of elements and compounds through the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

Abiotic Reservoir

A nonliving component of the environment that stores a particular element or compound, such as the atmosphere or the ocean.

Biotic Components

Living organisms in an ecosystem, such as plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Ecological Footprint

The impact of human activities on the environment, measured in terms of the amount of land and resources required to support those activities.

Deforestation

The clearing of forests for other land uses.

Cloning

The process of producing genetically identical copies of an organism.

Biotechnology

The use of living organisms and their products to solve problems and make products.

DNA Technology

The manipulation of DNA for various purposes, such as genetic engineering.

Genetic Engineering

The direct manipulation of an organism's genome to introduce new traits.

Restriction Enzymes

Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences.

Restriction Site

The specific sequence of DNA that is recognized and cut by a restriction enzyme.

Restriction Fragments

Pieces of DNA produced by the action of restriction enzymes.

Sticky Ends

Short, single-stranded ends of DNA fragments that can be joined together by DNA ligase.

DNA Cloning

The process of making multiple copies of a specific DNA fragment.

Plasmid

A small, circular piece of DNA found in bacteria.

DNA Ligase

An enzyme that joins DNA fragments together.

Recombinant Plasmid

A plasmid that contains DNA from two or more different sources.

Recombinant DNA

DNA that has been formed artificially by combining DNA sequences from different organisms.

Genome

The complete set of genetic material in an organism.

Genomic Library

A collection of DNA fragments that represent the entire genome of an organism.

Nucleic Acid Probe

A single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule that is labeled with a radioactive or fluorescent tag and used to detect specific DNA sequences.

CRISPR-Cas9

A gene editing tool that allows scientists to precisely modify the DNA of an organism.

Reverse Transcriptase

An enzyme that synthesizes DNA from an RNA template.

Complementary DNA (cDNA)

DNA that is synthesized from an RNA template using reverse transcriptase.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.

Transgenic Organism

An organism that contains genes from another species.

DNA Synthesizer

A machine that can synthesize short strands of DNA.

Critical Thinking

The ability to think clearly and rationally, to analyze information, and to form sound judgments.

Pseudoscience

A claim or belief that is presented as scientific but is not based on scientific evidence.

Anecdotal Evidence

Evidence based on personal experiences or observations, rather than on scientific research.

Sample Size

The number of individuals or observations included in a study.

Control Group

A group in an experiment that is not exposed to the experimental treatment and is used as a comparison.

Reproducibility

The ability of a scientific experiment or study to be repeated by others with similar results.

Biology

The study of life.

Life

The quality that distinguishes living organisms from non-living matter.

Taxonomy

The science of classifying organisms.

Domains

The highest level of classification, dividing life into three major groups: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

Taxonomic Hierarchy

A hierarchical system of classifying organisms, from broad to specific: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

Three-Domain System

A classification system that divides life into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

Kingdoms

A major taxonomic rank below domain, traditionally including six kingdoms: Bacteria, Archaea, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

Scientific Name

A two-part name assigned to each species, consisting of the genus and species names (e.g., Homo sapiens).

Protist

A diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that are not fungi, plants, or animals.

Protozoans

Protists that are heterotrophic and often motile.

Amoebas

Protozoans that move and feed using pseudopodia.

Slime Molds

Protists that can exist as single-celled or multicellular organisms.

Algae

Protists that are photosynthetic and produce oxygen.

Seaweeds

Large, multicellular algae that live in marine environments.

Fungi

Eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic and obtain nutrients by absorption.

Eukaryotes

Organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Mushrooms

A type of fungus with a fruiting body.

Mycelium

The vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a network of hyphae.

Hyphae

Filaments that make up the mycelium of a fungus.

Spores

Reproductive cells produced by fungi.

Plant

Eukaryotic organisms that are photosynthetic and multicellular.

Mycorrhizae

Symbiotic relationships between fungi and plant roots.

Bryophytes

Non-vascular plants, such as mosses and liverworts.

Gametophyte

The haploid phase of a plant life cycle.

Sporophyte

The diploid phase of a plant life cycle.

Cuticle

A waxy layer on the surface of plant leaves that helps prevent water loss.

Vascular Tissue

Tissue in plants that transports water and nutrients.

Xylem

Vascular tissue that transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.

Phloem

Vascular tissue that transports sugars from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Sugar Source

A plant part that produces sugar, such as leaves.

Sugar Sink

A plant part that stores or uses sugar, such as roots or fruits.

Transpiration

The loss of water vapor from plant leaves.

Seedless Vascular Plants

Plants that have vascular tissue but do not produce seeds, such as ferns.

Lignin

A substance that strengthens plant cell walls.

Seed

A plant embryo enclosed in a protective coat.

Gymnosperms

Seed plants that produce naked seeds, such as conifers.

Monocot

A flowering plant with one cotyledon in its seed.

Dicot

A flowering plant with two cotyledons in its seed.

Heterotrophs

Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other organisms.

Phyla

Major groups within the animal kingdom.

Tissues

Groups of cells with similar structure and function.

Radial Symmetry

Symmetry around a central axis.

Bilateral Symmetry

Symmetry down a midline, dividing the body into left and right halves.

Invertebrates

Animals without a backbone.

Sponges

Simple, aquatic invertebrates.

Cnidarians

Invertebrates with stinging cells, such as jellyfish and corals.

Medusa

A free-swimming form of a cnidarian.

Polyp

A sessile form of a cnidarian.

Gastrovascular Cavity

A digestive cavity with a single opening.

Flatworms

Simple, flat invertebrates.

Annelids

Segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches.

Segmentation

The division of the body into repeated segments.

Nematodes

Roundworms.

Mollusks

Invertebrates with a soft body, often enclosed in a shell.

Visceral Mass

The internal organs of a mollusk.

Gills

Organs for gas exchange in aquatic animals.

Mantle

A tissue layer that secretes the shell in mollusks.

Radula

A rasping tongue-like structure found in many mollusks.

Foot

A muscular structure used for locomotion in many mollusks.

Gastropods

Mollusks with a single shell, such as snails and slugs.

Bivalves

Mollusks with a hinged shell, such as clams and oysters.

Cephalopods

Mollusks with well-developed heads and tentacles, such as squid and octopus.

Arthropods

Invertebrates with jointed legs and an exoskeleton.

Arachnids

Arthropods with eight legs, such as spiders and scorpions.

Crustaceans

Arthropods with a hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages, such as crabs and lobsters.

Insects

Arthropods with six legs and a body divided into three parts: head, thorax, and abdomen.

Echinoderms

Marine invertebrates with a spiny skin and a water vascular system, such as starfish and sea urchins.

Endoskeleton

An internal skeleton.

Tube Feet

Small, tube-like structures used for locomotion and feeding in echinoderms.

Chordates

Animals with a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.

Nerve Cord

A bundle of nerve fibers that runs along the back of an animal.

Tail

A muscular extension of the body that aids in locomotion.

Notochord

A flexible rod that supports the body of a chordate.

Pharyngeal Slits

Slits in the pharynx that allow for filter feeding or gas exchange.

Vertebrates

Chordates with a backbone.

Cartilaginous Fishes

Fish with a skeleton made of cartilage, such as sharks and rays.

Bony Fishes

Fish with a skeleton made of bone.

Operculum

A bony flap that covers the gills in bony fish.

Swim Bladder

A gas-filled sac that helps bony fish control their buoyancy.

Lobe-Finned Fishes

Fish with fleshy fins supported by bones, such as lungfish and coelacanths.

Tetrapods

Vertebrates with four limbs.

Amphibians

Tetrapods that live part of their life in water and part on land, such as frogs and salamanders.

Reptiles

Tetrapods with scaly skin and amniotic eggs, such as lizards, snakes, and turtles.

Amniotic Egg

An egg with a protective shell and membranes that allow for development on land.

Mammals

Vertebrates that have hair or fur, produce milk, and are endothermic.

Mammary Glands

Glands that produce milk to nourish young.

Endotherms

Animals that can regulate their body temperature internally.

Monotremes

Mammals that lay eggs, such as platypuses and echidnas.

Marsupial

Mammals whose young develop in a pouch, such as kangaroos and koalas.

Eutherian

Placental mammals, the most diverse group of mammals.

Primates

Mammals with opposable thumbs, binocular vision, and large brains, such as humans and monkeys.

Ecology

The study of the relationships between organisms and their environment.

Environmentalism

A social movement advocating for the protection of the environment.

Organism

A single living individual.

Population

A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area.

Community

A group of different populations living and interacting in the same area.

Ecosystem

A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

Ecosystem Services

Benefits provided by ecosystems, such as clean air, water, and soil.

Biosphere

The part of Earth inhabited by life.

Biotic Factors

Living components of an ecosystem.

Abiotic Factors

Non-living components of an ecosystem, such as temperature, water, and soil.

Global Carbon Cycle

The movement of carbon through the Earth's systems.

Global Water Cycle

The movement of water through the Earth's systems.

Precipitation

Water falling from the atmosphere, such as rain or snow.

Evaporation

The process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas.

Biome

A large geographic area characterized by its climate and dominant plant life.

Polar Ice

Frozen regions at the Earth's poles.

Tundra

A cold, treeless biome.

Temperate Grasslands

Grasslands with moderate climates.

Tropical Forests

Forests with warm, humid climates.

Chaparral

A biome with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters.

Coniferous Forests

Forests dominated by cone-bearing trees.

Temperate Broadleaf Forests

Forests with deciduous trees that lose their leaves in the fall.

Savannas

Grasslands with scattered trees.

Deserts

Arid regions with little rainfall.

Data

Information collected through observation or experimentation.

Graphs

Visual representations of data.

Bar Graph

A graph that uses bars to represent data.

Error Bars

Lines on a graph that show the uncertainty or variability in the data.

Line Graph

A graph that uses lines to show trends in data over time.

Y-axis

The vertical axis of a graph.

X-axis

The horizontal axis of a graph.

Pie Chart

A graph that shows the proportion of different categories within a whole.

Greenhouse Gases

Gases in the atmosphere that trap heat, such as carbon dioxide and methane.

Greenhouse Effect

The warming of the Earth's atmosphere due to the trapping of heat by greenhouse gases.

Global Climate Change

Long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns.

Global Warming

The gradual increase in Earth's average temperature.

Mitigation

Actions taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Adaptation

Actions taken to adjust to the effects of climate change.

Ecological Roles

Decomposers, mutualistic symbionts (e.g., mycorrhizae), and pathogens.

Plants Characteristics

Multicellular, photosynthetic, cell walls made of cellulose.

Plants Ecological Roles

Producers, oxygen production, soil formation, and habitat provision.

Plants Adaptations

Roots, stems, leaves, vascular tissue, seeds, and flowers.

Pteridophytes

Vascular plants without seeds (e.g., ferns). Sporophyte dominant.

Animal Kingdom Hypothetical Origin

Colonial protists.

Animal Adaptations

Multicellularity, specialized tissues, nervous system, and muscle tissue.

Porifera

Sponges.

Cnidaria

Jellyfish, corals, anemones.

Platyhelminthes

Flatworms.

Nematoda

Roundworms.

Annelida

Segmented worms.

Mollusca

Snails, clams, octopuses.

Arthropoda

Insects, spiders, crustaceans.

Echinodermata

Sea stars, sea urchins.

Chordata

Vertebrates and invertebrate chordates.

Chordate Characteristics

Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal tail.

Hagfish and Lampreys

Jawless fish.

Cartilaginous Fish

Sharks, rays.

Bony Fish

Most fish species.

Marsupials

Pouched mammals (e.g., kangaroo).

Eutherians

Placental mammals (e.g., humans, dogs, whales).

Genetic Diversity

Variation within species.

Species Diversity

Variety of species.

Ecosystem Diversity

Variety of ecosystems.

Benefits of Biodiversity

Ecosystem services (e.g., pollination, water purification), medicinal resources, aesthetic value, economic value.

Threats to Biodiversity

Habitat loss, overexploitation, pollution, climate change, invasive species.

Conservation Biology

The study of the factors that threaten species and ecosystems.

Restoration Ecology

The practice of restoring damaged ecosystems.

Energy Flow

Energy enters ecosystems as sunlight, is captured by producers through photosynthesis, and is then transferred to consumers through feeding relationships. Energy is lost as heat at each trophic level.

Matter Cycling

Matter, such as carbon, nitrogen, and water, cycles through ecosystems. Producers incorporate these elements into organic molecules, which are then passed to consumers through the food chain. Decomposers break down organic matter, returning nutrients to the soil to be used again by producers.

Light-dependent reactions

Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and used to produce ATP and NADPH.

Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle)

ATP and NADPH are used to fix carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and produce glucose.

Levels of Ecological Study

Organismal Ecology, Population Ecology, Community Ecology, Ecosystem Ecology, Global Ecology.

Energy Flow vs. Chemical Cycling

Energy enters an ecosystem as sunlight, is converted into chemical energy by producers, and is then transferred to consumers. It is eventually lost as heat.

Carbon Cycle

Carbon cycles between living and non-living parts of the environment through processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and the burning of fossil fuels.

Biomes

Biomes are large geographic areas characterized by distinct climates and dominant plant and animal life.

Sources of Greenhouse Gases

Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and biological processes. Human Sources: Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture.

Global Climate Change Impacts

Increased greenhouse gas emissions are causing global temperatures to rise, leading to changes in rainfall patterns, shifts in species distributions, coral reef bleaching, increased frequency of forest fires, and melting of polar ice.

Analyzing Climate Change Data

To analyze the effects of climate change on caribou populations, scientists can collect data on factors such as temperature, precipitation, vegetation, and caribou migration patterns.

Climate Change and Caribou-Chickweed Relationship

Climate change can affect the timing of plant growth and caribou migration.

Responding to Climate Change

There are two main approaches to responding to climate change: Mitigation and Adaptation.

Carbon Footprint

A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases emitted by an individual, organization, or country.