critical thinking

CH5 Inductive Generalizations

Research Design

Steps Include:

1. A question: the characteristic of interest

2. A hypothesis: speculation about what will be discovered.

3. A sample: the target population: control/experimental group

4. Data: observations made by the researcher.

5. Conclusions: interpretations

Question and Hypothesis Question:

• What is the effect of the drug Z on migraines? Hypothesis:

• Drug Z will lessen migraines caused by restricted vessels.

  Sample

• Random and Representative

• Control Group: subjects receiving no treatment or who receive a placebo (sugar

  pill)

• Experimental Group: subjects exposed to a variable.

  Conclusions
  Give results and meaning of the data collected Relationship between drug Z and migraines interpreted

  Evaluating Research Findings

  Criteria to look for

1. Sample size

2. Reliability

3. Alternative explanations

4. Statistically significant

5. Duplicate the results

6. Claim more than designed

7. Respected institution

8. Researcher bias

Controversy in Research Findings

Influential results

1. New Analysis Reasserts Video Games’ Link to Violence

2. Study Says Cell Phones Cause Brain Tumors – Are You Safe?

Skill

Read and consider original studies before making decisions based on controversial research findings.

Making, Evaluating, Repairing, and Refuting Arguments

Deductive argument

Check for correct form Refuting a deductive argument:

• Point out invalid reasoning

• Point out untrue premises

  Inductive argument :

  Check to see if it is Cogent

• Check for strong evidence

• Look at statistical and causal generalizations

• Look for current credible sources

  Two-Step Flow of Information

  Information Sources
  • Opinion Leaders Experts • The Public

  Expert Testimony

  Problems

• Wrong field

• Not recognized as experts

• Payment

• Bias

• Limitations

• Contradictions

  Reasoning by Analogy

  Drawing a comparison

• Evidence shows that this policy works well in one or more cases; therefore, I infer that it will work well in other similar situations.

CH5 Inductive Generalizations

protocol The design of a controlled research study.
subjects People or animals studied to get information about a target population.

control The process of weeding out extraneous factors that could affect the outcome of a study between two groups of subjects, in which one group is exposed to a variable and the other is not.

question The characteristic of interest concerning a targeted population.

hypothesis A speculation about what will be discovered from a research study.

sample Members of the target population who are studied by a researcher.

control group A group of subjects from the sample who get no treatment or a placebo and are thus a test benchmark.

placebo A pill or other treatment that has no medical value or effect (sometimes called a ‘sugar pill’) that is given to the control group in a research study.

experimental group A group of subjects from the sample who are exposed to a special treatment called the independent variable.

data The observations made and information collected by the researcher as he or she completes a study.

conclusions The researcher’s summary and interpretation of the meaning and significance of the study results.

independent variable The special treatment given to the experimental group in a research study. Exposure to the independent variable should be the only difference between the control group and the experimental group.

blind studies Studies in which subjects are not told whether they belong to the control group or the experimental group.

double-blind studies Studies in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which is the control group and which is the experimental group.

statistically significant The result of an experiment that will occur again in similar circumstances. cogent argument An inductive argument based on strong, credible evidence.

expert An individual who has education, significant experience, or both in a given area. The testimony of experts is used to support conclusions in arguments.

two-step flow The phenomenon of consulting friends or acquaintances who have expertise in a given area before making decisions.
The friends, called opinion leaders, first (step 1) get their information from the media and then (step 2) pass this information on to others.

opinion leaders People who are well informed, often through the media, about specific information and issues. Inductive reasoning is the process of making generalizations from specific observations.
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Chapter 6 Reasoning Errors

Reasoning Errors

Fallacies - 2 kinds

• Inadequate Reasons

• Fallacies that Mislead

  Fallacies

  Inadequate Reasoning

• Sounds good

• Sounds logical

• However, does not provide adequate support

• Form but no substance

  Inadequate Reasoning

  Faulty Analogies

• Significant differences between compared items.

•   Compare a product to an experience

•   Compare current experience to past

•   Advice for them will work for you

  False Cause – Post Hoc

• Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc: “After this, therefore because of this

•   First event causes second event without reason

•   Superstitious reasoning

•   Blame game

  The Slippery Slope

• Consequences of potential action predicted but not supported

•   The domino effect

•   Prediction based on speculation

  The Straw Man

• Opponent’s argument distorted or exaggerated and then easily attacked.  Position argument at extreme

Statistical Evidence

Hasty Conclusion

• Generalize with little information

•   Jumping to conclusions

•   Rushing to judgment

•   Self-fulfilling prophecy

  The False Dilemma

  Presenting only two extreme alternatives  No possibilities in between
   Leads to simplistic solutions

Begging the Question

• Speaker assumes what needs to be proven

•   Places the burden of proof on the listener

•   Builds on an unproven assumption

•   Uses a ‘loaded question’

  Skill

  Recognize when reasons given to justify a conclusion are not sufficient.

  Fallacies

  Fallacies that mislead

• Reasons that lead the listener away from the primary issue.

Fallacies That Mislead

The Red Herring

• Distract your attention

• Put on the defensive with another issue.

 Get that stick out of here
• It’s not a stick. It’s a laser beam

Ad Hominem: Attacking the person

• Attack personal qualities instead of the issue

•   Thomas Jefferson called “anti-American”

•   John Adams was accused of being a ‘fool’

•   Used to discredit someone

  Two Wrongs Make a Right

• One person's/group's action is justified because some other person's/group's action is just as bad or worse .

• Making excuses for our wrongful actions by pointing out the wrongful actions of others.

  Ad Populum:

• Jumping on the bandwagon

• If everyone is doing it, then it is okay

•   Keeping up with the Jones

•   The in-crowd

•   Why we buy products

  Appeal to Traditions

• Conform to tradition

• “We’ve always done it this way”

• Reasons are not relevant to the claim

 All the men in our family have been lawyers

Appeal to Pity

• Follow a course of action due to compassion

• May be true but is irrelevant to the claim
   You should go out with me or I will be upset

  Equivocation

  • The same word
   - two different meanings

CH 6 Reasoning errors

fallacies

Errors in reasoning. Fallacies
can be seen as
(1) reasons that seem logical but don’t necessarily support the conclusion or
(2) statements that distract listeners from the real issue.

Faulty analogy: Comparison of one situation or idea
to another that disregards significant differences that make the comparison invalid.

false cause (post hoc ergo propter hoc) A fallacy that occurs when there is no real proof that one event caused another event; there is only evidence that one event came after another event.

correlation A relationship or connection between two objects or events. Noting a correlation is sometimes the first step in exploring causation, but it does not equal causation.
causation A connection between two events in which it is established that one event caused the other.

slippery slope A fallacy that occurs when serious consequences of a potential action or policy are predicted and not substantiated by evidence.
straw man A fallacy in which an opponent’s argument is distorted or exaggerated and then more easily attacked.

hasty conclusion A fallacy in which a generalization is drawn from a small and thus inadequate sample of information.

self-fulfilling prophecy A process whereby an expectation becomes a reality.
false dilemma (either-or fallacy)An error in reasoning that occurs when one polarizes a situation by presenting

only two alternatives, at two extremes of the spectrum of possibilities.
begging the question A fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer assumes what needs to be proven.

red herring A fallacy in which reasons offered to support conclusions lead the listener away from the issue under consideration.

ad hominem (attacking the person) A Latin term meaning “to the man” or attacking the person.
Ad hominem occurs when a person is attacked on a personal quality that is irrelevant to the issue under discussion.

Two wrongs make a right A fallacy that is used to excuse bad behavior on the grounds of other bad behavior; the fallacy occurs when someone rationalizes that one person’s, or one group’s action is justified because some other person’s or group’s action is just as bad or worse.

look who’s talking A fallacy that is committed when someone denies a claim because they believe the speaker who is making the claim is hypocritical.
ad populum A fallacy that consists of a false appeal to the authority of “everyone.” This fallacy is based on the assumption that a course of action should be taken or

an idea should be supported because “everyone” is doing it or believes it.

appeal to tradition A fallacy that occurs when a belief or action is supported on the ground that it conforms to traditional ideas or practices.
appeal to pity A logical fallacy that occurs when someone argues that others should follow a course of action or hold a certain belief for no other reason than that they should feel compassion for the irrelevant claims or irresponsibility of the speaker.

equivocation A logical fallacy in which the same word is used with two different meanings. -----

Chapter 7: The Power of Language

The Power of Language

Language: A powerful system of symbols that allows us to communicate
Confucius: “If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success.”

Shakespeare: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet” Denotation
The specific object or action that a word

•   Points

•   Refers

•   Indicates

• The dictionary meaning.

Connotation
• The images

•   Positive

•   Negative

•   Neutral

• Evoke emotional meanings.

The Power of Connotation

Semantic Differential

Lady

• Passive • Weak • Good

Woman

• Active

• Strong

• Neutral

  What’s in a name?

  Belief

• Abortion is wrong.

• Description: anti-abortionist, anti-choice, pro-life

  Belief

• Abortion is right

• Description: pro-abortion, anti-life, pro-choice

  Reification

  Words - more powerful than reality

• Treating words as concrete realities  Brand names

(Shakespeare)

 Designer labels  Poor Grades
 Low self esteem

Meanings are in People.

The word is not a thing.

Analogy
 Map (the words) – a visual representation  Territory on the map – reality
 ‘life raft’

Frame of reference

Problems with Language

Four common problems

• Vagueness
• Ambiguity
• Doublespeak • Weasel words

Vagueness

• Using nonspecific or abstract words

• Meaning is unclear

  ‘Get clothes whiter than white’ ‘It’s the real thing’

  Ambiguity

• Two or more different meanings
- Confusion and misunderstanding - Equivocation

Doublespeak

• Lying while pretending to tell the truth - Make the bad look good

• Deny painful realities Euphemism:

• Less direct but more acceptable description

• Softens harsh realities

  - passed away instead of died Spin:

• Putting things in a different light

• Reframing the truth

  Weasel words

  Excessive words:

  • retreat from direct statements

  • undermine a claim

    Most often used weasel word in advertising?

CH 7 POWER OF LANGUAGE

denotation the specific object or action that a word points to, refers to, or indicates.

connotation All the images—positive, negative, or neutral—that are associated with any given denotation by an individual or a group. The connotations of words include their emotional meanings. Both concrete and abstract words have connotations that are different for different individuals.

semantic differential A tool that allows semanticists to assess the connotations of a word for a particular group.

reification A process by which words become more powerful and real than objective reality. vagueness A problem that arises with the use of nonspecific or abstract words. A word or phrase

is vague when its meaning is unclear.

ambiguity Having two or more possible meanings. Ambiguity in language occurs when the meaning of words is unclear or uncertain; such ambiguity can lead to confusion and misunderstanding.

doublespeak Language used to lie or mislead while pretending to tell the truth. Doublespeak includes the use of euphemism, jargon, gobbledygook, and weasel words.

euphemism The use of a less direct but softer or more acceptable term to describe an event, person, or object.

Spin: The use of language, particularly in politics and public relations, to create a biased, positive connotation for ideas, events, or policies that one favors and a biased negative impression about ideas, events, or policies that one dislikes.

jargon Specialized language sometimes used to exclude or impress people who don’t understand the terminology.

gobbledygook Vague or inflated language used to confuse or overwhelm those who hear it. Weasel word A word used to evade or retreat from a direct or forthright statement or position.

romancing the product A technique used by advertisers in which consumers are asked to associate a product with something bigger, better, or more attractive.
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Chapter 8 Suggestion in media

Suggestion
• Presentation of ideas  To reveal
 To conceal
• Create impressions

Televised Suggestion

Selection of Issues

• Reporter’s interest

• Ratings
Sensationalism – bizarre versus less interesting Increase in reality television

Use of time

• Time placement
  Early coverage suggests importance

• Quantity of time
  Significant coverage suggests importance

  Guest selection

  • Representation
  contrast attractive and articulate

  • Treatment
  is a guest treated positively or negatively

  The Set

• Positive visualization with props

• Positive images with props

  Non-verbal and verbal

• Non verbal - Clothing can suggest character and appropriateness

• Language affects perception Labels can enhance or discredit

  Camera angles and cuts

• Below angle shots create a sense of authority

• Sound bite-can help or distort true message

  Camera distance and framing

• Camera distance:
Close up adds intimacy

Wide angle simulates distance • Framing:

Deliberate or unconscious camera shots influence the audience

Suggestion in Media

Print Media

• Headlines-first thing seen

• Openings to a News Story or “Leads”

• Balance

• Fairness in Editorial Essays and Letters

• Photo Composition

The Power of Media

Create or reflect reality

• Is meaning shaped by media?
Are viewers thoughts manipulated?

Does media create or reflect reality

• Is meaning shaped by media?
Are viewers thoughts manipulated?

Marketing and Advertising

A Bag of Marketing and Advertising Tricks

Fuzzy Words Made in America but only the tag is made in America Stylized Images and Sounds plastic Ice cubes
Eye Tracking
Opinion Leaders

Logical Fallacies
Gestalt Principle strive towards completion of a thought Celebrity Associations and Endorsements
Product Placement Logical Fallacies coke glass Neuro-marketing
Social Media

Marketing Tricks

Gestalt Principle

• The whole is greater that the sum of the parts
Our minds strive toward congruence and completion of information. We finish the

incomplete details.

Customer Loyalty and Social Media

Social Media

• Facebook-biggest marketing tool

• Twitter-helps marketers connect directly

• Foursquare-who has checked in

• YouTube – Reposting

• Crowdsourcing

• Yelp

  Marketing Tricks

  Eye tracking

• Recording visual response

Neuromarketing

• Using technology to determine consumer’s reactions to products  Subliminal persuasion

-Messages perceived at an unconscious level  MRI scans to measure response

Storytelling as Persuasion

Powerful Persuasion

• Movies and televised fiction
Persuasive power of stories Vulnerable to ‘hidden’ arguments in stories.

CH 8 Suggestion in media

suggestion The presentation of ideas or images in such a way as to reveal certain ideas or qualities and to conceal others.

sensationalism A method used to attract viewers by presenting more exciting stories over less- exciting but perhaps more newsworthy ones; the most bizarre, visually interesting, or sensational elements of these stories are featured.

Sound bite An excerpt from a speech or report that is presented as summarizing but may actually distort the sentiments of the speaker or writer.

framing The deliberate or unconscious use of camera shots to influence audiences; also, the use of a number of techniques by journalists and broadcasters to create
a particular impression of reality.

Fairness Doctrine A former U.S. policy by which broadcasters must allow equal airtime for all sides of an issue.

Spin : The use of language, particularly in politics and public relations, to create a biased, positive connotation for ideas, events, or policies that one favors, and a biased negative impression about ideas, events, or policies that one dislikes.

Lead: The introductory sentence of a news story that is meant to give a reader the essence or general meaning of the story.

representer A term used synonymously with the word reporter to indicate that reporters make strategic choices that frame news stories.

product placement The practice of integrating or embedding products in films, television programs, and other media in order to reach consumers.

Gestalt principle A principle that states that our minds strive toward congruence and completion of information. If a message strikes us as incomplete, we will fill in the missing details ourselves.

Eye tracking: Using photographic technology to record exactly where a person is looking as he or she is interacting with some kind of visual display in order to create ads and websites that attract a target audience.

subliminal persuasion Information meant to affect people on an unconscious level, some of which can be detected with training and some of which cannot be detected with the conscious mind, regardless of training. The existence and effectiveness of this latter form of subliminal persuasion remains under dispute.

neuromarketing Using technology to determine consumers’ internal, subconscious reactions to products and brand names in order to plan effective marketing strategies.