Notes on German Unification and its Impact on Europe

German Fragmentation Before 1871

• German-speaking territories were weak and fragmented, divided into many small states.

• Each state had its own ruler, preventing any single entity from amassing enough power to challenge France, Russia, or England.

• This fragmentation was beneficial to other European countries, particularly France.

Unification and its Consequences

• In 1871, the German-speaking territories united, driven by conservative nationalism and romanticism.

• This new Germany was economically and militarily strong from its inception, immediately disrupting the existing European balance of power.

• The 20th century became about reestablishing balance in response to Germany’s rise.

• World War I and the Cold War can be viewed as conflicts related to containing or controlling Germany.

Map of German Territories

• The pre-1871 map showed a chaotic collection of territories, each with a different leader.

• Seven of these leaders would vote to elect the Holy Roman Emperor, a position consistently held by the Habsburgs through bribery and influence.

• The Habsburgs were genuinely powerful in their hereditary territories in Austria but had limited direct control over the broader Holy Roman Empire.

• Prussia emerged as a significant power within the German-speaking areas, eventually leading to German unification.

Renaissance and Humanism

• The Renaissance was significant to the German story, particularly the idea of humanism.

• Christian humanism flourished in the Northern Renaissance (Netherlands and Belgium).

• Italian humanism (e.g., Pico Mirandola) emphasized human potential and observation of creation.

• Christian humanists in German-speaking areas focused on applying Renaissance scholarship to religious texts.

• The printing press, a German invention, facilitated the spread of humanist ideas and increased literacy.

Christian Humanism and the Bible

• Christian humanists used their education to translate the Bible into local languages (e.g., German).

• This contrasted with the Latin Vulgate Bible used by the Catholic Church.

• They felt that the scriptures did not match the practices of the Catholic Church.

Tax Revenue and the Catholic Church

• German taxpayers' money flowed to the Catholic Church in Rome, funding projects like the Sistine Chapel and St. Peter’s Cathedral.

• This caused frustration among some who felt that the Church's practices were not aligned with scripture.

Martin Luther and the Reformation

• Martin Luther advocated for salvation by faith alone, challenging the Catholic Church's doctrine of salvation through faith and good works.

• Indulgences, sold by the Catholic Church as a way to reduce time in purgatory, were a key point of contention.

• Luther argued that the Bible made no mention of indulgences or the necessity of good works for salvation.

Protestant vs. Catholic Doctrine

• Salvation:

  • Protestants: Salvation by faith alone.

  • Catholics: Salvation by faith and good works.

• Sacraments:

  • Protestants: Two sacraments (Baptism and Communion) based directly on biblical stories.

  • Catholics: Seven sacraments.

• Authority:

  • Protestants: The Bible is the sole authority.

  • Catholics: The Pope and Church tradition hold authority.

Impact on Ordinary People

• Divorce:

  • Protestants: Divorce is permissible.

  • Catholics: Divorce is not allowed.

• Priesthood:

  • Protestants: Priesthood of all believers; no need for a priest as an intermediary.

  • Catholics: Priests are essential intermediaries between individuals and God.

Communication of Ideas

• Catholic Church communicated ideas top-down in Latin.

• Protestants communicated ideas in local languages to ensure understanding.

Division within the Holy Roman Empire

• The Holy Roman Emperor could not suppress Protestantism in territories where the local nobles supported it.

• Luther survived because he lived in the fragmented Holy Roman Empire with powerful protectors.

Distractions of Charles V

• Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, was distracted by exploration, conquest, and threats from the Ottoman Empire.

• He also faced opposition from France, preventing him from fully focusing on suppressing the Reformation.

Schmalkaldic War and the Thirty Years' War

• Conflicts between Protestants and Catholics led to the Schmalkaldic War and the Thirty Years' War.

• The Peace of Westphalia, ending the Thirty Years' War, allowed rulers to choose the religion of their territory, perpetuating fragmentation.

French Interference

• France supported the Protestant German states during the Thirty Years' War to prolong chaos and prevent German unification.

• This policy aimed to keep the German territories weak and divided, benefiting France.

Foreshadowing German Unification

• The speaker foreshadows that German unification will be detrimental to France.

• A French person influenced by enlightenment thought would inadvertently create conditions for German unification.

Germany from 1648 to 1815

• The scientific revolution occurred in Germany but did not threaten the European balance of power.

• Absolutism did not take hold in the Holy Roman Empire because rulers were unwilling to cede power.

• Austria and Prussia grew stronger, but the Holy Roman Empire remained weak and fragmented.

The Enlightenment and the French Revolution

• The German-speaking areas participated in the Enlightenment (e.g., Immanuel Kant).

• The ideas of the French Revolution appealed to some in the German-speaking areas, but Austria and Prussia opposed the revolution.

• Austria and Prussia went to war against France to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas.

Napoleonic Era

• Napoleon invaded the Holy Roman Empire and reorganized it, abolishing the empire.

• French Revolutionaries attempted to reorganize things in illogical ways (metric system with base 10).

Congress of Vienna (1815)

• After Napoleon's defeat, European powers met at the Congress of Vienna to restore the status quo, favoring conservative governments.

• The Congress of Vienna strengthened Austria and Prussia but kept the middle chunk of German territories weak.

• The five major European powers in 1815 were Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Russia, and France.

Developments in the 1800s

• The Industrial Revolution greatly affected the German-speaking areas; they became adept at industrialization, invention, and trade

• Nationalism: Napoleon's invasion sparked patriotic feeling.

• Romanticism reacted against the industrial revolution and the perceived ineffectiveness of the French Revolution.

• Germans enjoyed the Romantic Movement themes, and tales of a bygone era instilled patriotic pride.

Otto von Bismarck and German Unification

• Otto von Bismarck, a conservative Prussian noble, masterminded German unification.

• Bismarck believed that conservatives should lead the nationalist movement and used war to unite the German people.

• Prussia, dominated the new Germany due to Bismarck's strategies.

Wars of Unification

• Bismarck orchestrated wars with Denmark, Austria, and France to foster German nationalism.

• The Franco-Prussian War was crucial in uniting the German states against a common enemy.

• Bismarck provoked France into declaring war through fabricated documents, ensuring German support.

Franco-Prussian War and the Siege of Paris

• Prussia defeated France, demonstrating its economic and military strength.

• The Prussian army besieged Paris, leading to famine and desperation among civilians.

• Parisians resorted to eating zoo animals (including the elephants Castor and Pollux), rats, and dogs.

• Many French escaped Paris by hot air balloon.

The Road to World War I

• 1871 (German Unification) to 1914 (Start of WWI):

• France sought to reclaim lost territory from the Franco-Prussian War.

• Great Britain feared Germany’s growing naval power, ending its policy of splendid isolation.

• Russia felt threatened by Germany's military strength and formed an alliance with France.

• Germany formed the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary due to ethnic ties and fear of isolation.

Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences

• The Treaty of Versailles punished Germany severely, setting the stage for future conflict.

• Germany was forced to cede Alsace-Lorraine back to France and was forbidden from uniting with Austria.

• Germany was burdened with heavy fines, mirroring the fines France had to pay after the Franco-Prussian War.

• The treaty was signed in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles, where the German Empire had been proclaimed.

Weimar Republic and the Rise of Nazism

• The Weimar Republic, an attempt at constitutional liberal rule, failed due to Germany’s underlying conservative, nationalist, and romantic tendencies.