Conformity 

• Social Psychology - the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context

  • Thoughts, feelings, or behaviors either concern other people or are influenced by other people

• Social Influence - the ways people are affected by the real or imagined pressures of others

• Chameleon Effect - unconsciously mimicking others automatically without effort

  • Mimicry serves an important social function, “in sync,” pace, posture, mannerism, facial expressions, tone of voice, accents, speech patterns, and other behaviors

• Conformity - The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms

  • Conformity is the most common and widespread form of social influence

  • A certain amount of conformity is necessary and normal, to maintain communities and coexist peacefully

• Muzafer Sherif (1936) - study of how norms develop in small groups

  • Participants estimate of apparent movement of light gradually converged, once in groups participants conformed to the norm that had developed

• Solomon Asch (1951) - study on how people’s beliefs affect the beliefs of others

  • In a control group where judgements were made in isolate there were no errors

  • The participants in Asch’s experiments conformed to the majority about a third of the time

• Informational Influence - influence that produces conformity when a person believes others are correct in their judgements 

  • “Do you think we should?”

  • “Sure. Everyone else is doing it.”

• Normative Influence “Social Norm” - influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant

  • Individuals who are deviant form a group’s norm tend to be disliked, rejected, ridiculed, and outright dismissed

Obedience

• Obedience - changing one’s behavior at the direct command of an authority figure (person with social power)

  • Symbols of authority include titles uniforms, badges, perceived success

• Stanley Milgram (1963) - designed one of the more famous experiments in the history of psychology on obedience 

  • Measured the willingness to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscious 

• The Obedient Participant “65% Baseline”

  • In Milgram’s initial study, involving 40 men, participants administered an average of 27 out of 30 possible shocks 

  • 26 out of the 40 participants (65%) delivered the ultimate punishment of 450 volts

• The Obedient Participant 

  • The control group participants refused to continue early into the shock sequence 

  • Virtually all participants were tormented by the experience

  • Forty women who participated in a later study exhibited precisely the same level of obedience 

• Important Factors 

  • Authority - Destructive obedience requires the physical presence of a prestigious authority figure

  • The Victim - Physical separation from victim allows for emotional distance from the consequence of actions 

  • The Procedure - Removal of sense of responsibility for the victim’s welfare

• Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment 

  • Demonstrates the powerful role that the situation can play in human behavior

    • The guards were placed in a position of power, the prisoners, placed in a situation where they had no real control

Group Behavior

• Group - A set of individuals who interact over time and have shared fate, goals, or identity  

  • A group can be better-or worse- than its individual members 

  • Humans may have an innate need to belong to groups to increase people’s chances of survival/reproduction

• Social Facilitation - A process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks 

  • The presence of others increases arousal and response 

  • Social Inhibition - performance is poorer when watched by others

• Social Loafing - Tendency of individuals to put forth less effort when they are part of a group

  • The Sucker Effect - While everyone goofs off, everyone withholds effort to not be the “sucker” who does all the work 

• Deindividuation - the loss of a person’s sense of individuality and the reduction or normal constraints against deviant behavior

  • Individuals will not be held responsibility for their actions

  • Large crowds can both increase anonymity and decrease self-awareness (violent/ behavior)

• Group Polarization - the exaggeration of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members through group discussions

  • In the group, members are more likely to make riskier decisions as the shared risk makes the individual risk seem to be less

  • Extreme ideas seem less risky as it appears  the view is held by numerous like-minded people

• Groupthink - A group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence 

  • Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative ideas or viewpoints

Prejudice and Discrimination

• Stereotype - overgeneralized mental schemas about a group of people based only on their membership in a group not on any individual characteristics

  • These can be false or can contain an element of truth

  • Simplified assumption based on prior experiences or beliefs

• Prejudice “Prejudgement” - unjustified, negative attitude about a group of people based on their membership in the group 

  • Feelings may influence treatment of others, leading to discrimination

• Discrimination - unjustified Negative behavior toward members of a target group (individual level) based on their race, ethnicity, or other shared characteristic

  • Discrimination can lower a person’s self-esteem and create stress that leads to mental and physical health problems for both adults and children 

• Racism - Categorization of a person or group of people based on their race or ethnicity and the systematic mistreatment of people in the targeted group 

  • Racism is prejudice and discrimination plus the power to discriminate 

• Stereotype Threat - A situation in which people feel at risk of performing as their group is expected to perform

• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy - Expectation held by a person that alters his or her behavior in a way that tends to make it true 

• Scapegoat Theory - Members of a group in power hold members of a less powerful group responsible for their problems

  • Gordon Allport (1954) connected scapegoating with feelings of prejudice, gives people a target to blame for their problems and more of a sense of control over their lives

• In-Groups - Group that we identify with “us” or see ourselves as belonging to (gender, race, age, social economic group) 

  • Provide powerful source of our identity and self-esteem 

  • Strong sense of belonging and emotional connection 

  • Develop in-group bias, preference for our own group over other groups 

• Ethnocentrism -Tendency to use your own culture as the standard by which to judge and evaluate other cultures 

  • Belief that your society, group, or culture is superior to all others

• Out-Groups - Social groups with whom a person does not identify; “them” 

  • Dividing the world into “us” and “them” entails racism and war

• Out-Group Homogeneity - the tendency for us to view members of outgroups as being more similar, or homogeneous, than members of ingroups that we belong to

  • Dividing the world into “us” and “them” entails racism and war

• Contact Hypothesis - bringing members from different groups together will reduce prejudice (exposure) improve positive attitudes

  • Those in authority firmly endorse integration

  • Competition among groups is absent

  • There is equal status among groups

  • Contacts among groups permit learning about each other as individuals

• Subordinate Goal - Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

  • Cooperation has especially positive effects when it leads people to define a new, inclusive group that dissolves their former subgroups 

Aggression

• Aggression - Range of behaviors that are intended to cause harm to others who do not wish to be harmed  (Harmful Social Interaction)

  • Aggression may be physical, mental, or verbal, and varies according to cultural factors

  • Toddlers are the most aggressive age group because they cannot verbally communicate what they want as well

  • Ages 18-24 are the most common murder ages

  • Men are more physically aggressive, women are more relationally aggressive

    • Relationally aggressive includes excluding people, ganging up on others, and manipulating and ruining relationships

    • Men have higher levels are testosterone, which is linked to aggression

• Hostile Aggression - Strong emotions, particularly anger, and is associated with impulsive, unplanned, or uncontrolled behavior. Harming the other person is the goal of this kind of aggression

• Instrumental Aggression - Intent to harm another person but the motivation is not emotional, rather it is to advance a cause or to achieve something 

  • Associated with goal-oriented, planned, hidden, or controlled behavior. Harming the person is used to obtain some other goal

• Genetic Influences - seem to predispose people to aggressiveness or passivity

  • Animals have been bred for aggressiveness for sport and at times for research

  • Twin studies show aggression may be genetic. In men, aggression is possibly linked to the Y chromosome

  • Some centers in the brain, especially the limbic system (amygdala) and the frontal lobe, are intimately involved with aggression

• Social Learning - our reactions are more likely to be aggressive in situations where experience has taught us that aggression pays

  • When aggression leads to desired outcomes, one learns to be aggressive. This is shown in both animals and humans

• The Frustration-Aggression Principle - The idea that people become aggressive when they’re frustrated by being blocked from reaching a goal

• Situational Factors - All unpleasant events, not just frustrations, cause aggression 

  • Studies also show that undesirable stimuli such as hot temperatures, crowded space, social rejections, loud noises, long lineups, physical pain, etc. evoke frustration which leads to aggression 

Altruism and Conflict

• Bystander Effect - Phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely people are to help a person in distress

• Diffusion of Responsibility - Because there are other observers, individuals do not feel as much pressure to take action, since the responsibility to take action is thought to be shared among all of those present

• Bystander Intervention - Helping an emergency despite the presence of others  (Break the cycle of inaction)

• Altruism - The unselfish concern for other people; doing things simply out of a desire to help, not because you feel obligated to 

• Social Exchange Theory - Argues that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs—i.e., when your behavior helps you even more than it helps the other person

  • All human relationships are formed through the use of cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives

• Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis - psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathetic desire to help someone who is suffering

  • The key for altruism is empathizing with the victim, that is, putting oneself in the shoes of the victim and imagining how the victim must feel

• Reciprocity - social expectation in which we feel pressured to help others if they have already done something for us

  • The human tendency toward reciprocity is so strong that a person will feel obligated to return a favor even if they did not want the favor

• Social Responsibility Norm - societal rule that tells people they should help others who need help even if they may not repay us

• The Helper’s High - The “helper’s high,” is so powerful that it can have dramatic positive impact on both a person’s happiness and physical well-being

  • Experience less depression, greater self-esteem, and even less physical pain than those who do not help others 

• Social Dilemma - a situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone will create the worst outcome for everyone

• “Prisoner’s Dilemma” - A type of dilemma in which one party must make either cooperative or competitive moves in relation to another party

  • The dilemma is typically designed so that the competitive move appears to be in one’s self interest, but if both sides make this move, they both suffer more than if they had cooperated

• Graduated & Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction (GRIT) - This is a strategy designed to decrease international tensions. One side recognizes mutual interests and initiates a small conciliatory act that opens the door for reciprocation by the other party

  • In laboratory experiments, GRIT has been an effective strategy for increasing trust and cooperation

Attraction 

• Interpersonal Attraction - All of the forces that lead people to like each other, establish relationships, and in some cases, fall in love

  • It can take many forms, including liking, love, friendship, lust, and admiration

• Proximity - The closer together people are physically, the more likely they are to form a relationship/friendship

  • The physical proximity increases the already-existing physical attraction

• Physical Attractiveness - People tend to like those whom they find physically attractive 

  • An important element in romantic relationships, particularly in the early stages

  • Men are more likely to value physical attractiveness than are women

• Familiarity “Mere Exposure Effect” - Liking someone occurs because of repeatedly seeing that person or thing 

  • We tend to like things as they become familiar, they produce more positive feelings and seem safer

• Halo Effect - Our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about his or her character

  • We perceive attractive people to be healthier, happier, more sensitive, more successful, and more socially skilled, though not more honest or compassionate 

• Similarity - The more similar two people are in attitudes, background, and other traits, the more probable it is that they will like each other

  • Similarity makes things easier and helps us validate ourselves. The more alike people are, the more their liking endures

  • Opposites do not usually attract

• Reciprocity of Liking - People have a very strong tendency to like people who like them (raise our self-esteem) 

• Sternberg’s Components of Love

  • Intimacy - The feelings of closeness that one has for another person or the sense of having close emotional ties to another (Not physical but psychological)

  • Passion - The physical aspect of love, the emotional & sexual arousal a person feels towards the other person (holding hands, loving looks, hugs, sex) 

  • Commitment - The decisions one makes about a relationship, promise to sustain the relationship 

  • Passionate Love - Emotional love that is mostly expressed in a physical manner; Passionate love is both exciting and intense

    • Usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

    • Involves absorption in another person, sexual desire, tenderness, and intense emotion

  • Companionate Love - Passionate love that has settled to a warm enduring love between partners in a relationship; it is comprised of intimacy and commitment

    • Often found in long-term relationships, It is more stable and involves a deeper respect and affectionate attachment between partners

  • Consummate Love - The most complete and ideal form of love, combining intimacy, passion, and commitment

Attribution and Attitudes 

• Social Cognition - Refers to the way people gather, use, and interpret information about the social aspects of the world around them

• Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider 1958) - The theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either internal characteristics or environmental factors 

• Dispositional Attributions - Internal Characteristics (Personal Traits) such as personality and intelligence

  • Example: blaming yourself or your habits if you do bad on a test

• Situational Attributions - Environmental Factors

  • Example: blaming the teacher or how tired you are if you hold a test

• Cognitive bias - is a systematic error in thinking that affects the decisions and judgments that people make

  • Psychologists believe that many of these biases serve an adaptive purpose—they allow us to reach decisions quickly

• Fundamental Attribution Error - Our tendency to underestimate the impact of situational factors and overestimate the impact of disproportionate (personal) factors when assessing why other people acted the way they did 

• Self-Serving Bias - Tendency to blame external forces when bad things happen and to give ourselves credit when good things happen

  • Occurs when we evaluate our own behavior 

  • Allows you to protect your self-esteem

• Actor-Observer Bias - Tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes

  • People tend to make different attributions depending upon whether they are the actor or the observer in a situation

• False Consensus Effect - Tendency to overestimate how much other people agree with us; leads people to believe that their own values and ideas are "normal" and that the majority of people share these same opinions

• Just-World Phenomenon - Tendency to believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve

  • People want to believe that the world is fair, they will look for ways to explain or rationalize away injustice

  • Blaming the person in a situation who is actually the victim

• Attitude - Our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. Typically, attitudes are favorable or unfavorable, or positive or negative 

  • Our attitudes affect our actions. And our actions affect our attitudes

• Central Route of Persuasion - The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments

  • People who apply this route are more strongly persuaded for a longer period of time

• Peripheral Route of Persuasion - The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues

  • Superficial cues distract the audience to win favorable approval of their product and to increase sales (less stable) 

• Elaboration Likelihood Model of Attitude Change - People are more likely to carefully process persuasive messages when they are motivated and capable of considering all available information

• Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon - Tendency for people who have first agreed  to a small request to comply later with a larger request

• Door-In-The-Face Technique - Asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment and getting agreement

• Cognitive Dissonance (Leon Festinger 1957) - Sense of discomfort or distress that occurs when a person’s behavior does not correspond to that person’s attitudes

  • Change their conflicting behavior to make it match their attitude

  • Change their current conflicting cognition to justify their behavior

  • Form new cognitions to justify their behavior