MS

ETHICAL THEORIES

Consequentialist Ethical Theories:

  • Utilitarianism Utilitarianism asserts that an action is morally right if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. It is a consequentialist theory, meaning that it focuses on the outcomes or consequences of actions to determine their moral worth. Utilitarians like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill believed that happiness, often equated with pleasure and the absence of pain, is the ultimate good. Actions are judged as right or wrong based on their tendency to promote or diminish overall happiness. The sources use the example of dams to illustrate utilitarian thinking. While dams can bring benefits like electricity and irrigation, they can also have negative consequences, such as displacement of communities and environmental damage. A utilitarian approach would weigh these benefits and harms to determine whether building a dam is morally justifiable.

    There are different types of utilitarianism:

    • Act utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of individual actions, while rule utilitarianism considers the consequences of following general rules. For example, an act utilitarian might judge lying to be wrong in one situation but permissible in another if it leads to a better outcome, whereas a rule utilitarian might argue that lying is generally wrong because it undermines trust and leads to negative consequences in the long run.

    • The sources also discuss hedonistic and altruistic forms of utilitarianism. Hedonistic utilitarianism prioritizes individual pleasure, while altruistic utilitarianism focuses on the happiness of others.

  • Ethical Egoism Ethical egoism argues that individuals ought to act in their own self-interest. This theory can be viewed as a form of consequentialism, where the consequences for the individual agent are paramount. Ayn Rand, a prominent advocate of ethical egoism, argued that selfishness, when understood as the pursuit of one's rational self-interest, is a virtue. Rand believed that altruism, the selfless concern for others, is harmful and ultimately self-destructive. She argued that individuals should prioritize their own values and goals, as long as they do not violate the rights of others. Rand's ethical egoism is closely tied to her political philosophy of Objectivism, which advocates for laissez-faire capitalism and individual liberty.

Non-Consequentialist Ethical Theories:

  • Deontology Deontological ethics emphasizes the inherent nature of actions themselves, rather than their consequences. Certain actions are considered intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of their outcomes. The sources primarily discuss deontology in the context of duty ethics, which focuses on the concept of moral obligation. Immanuel Kant, a key figure in deontological ethics, argued that moral actions are those that can be universalized without contradiction. His categorical imperative provides a framework for determining moral duties. The sources use examples like the duty of a doctor to provide care or the duty of a soldier to protect their nation to illustrate duty-based ethics.

    W.D. Ross's theory of prima facie duties is another example of deontology discussed in the sources. Ross argued that there are multiple moral duties that individuals must consider, including fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice, beneficence, self-improvement, and non-maleficence. These duties are not absolute but rather "conditional" on the specific situation.

  • Situation Ethics Situation ethics emphasizes the context of a moral situation as the primary factor in determining the right course of action. It rejects the idea of absolute rules and argues that ethical decisions should be made on a case-by-case basis, taking into account the unique circumstances and the potential consequences. The sources associate situation ethics with the idea of love as the guiding principle, suggesting that actions motivated by love and compassion are more likely to be ethically sound, even if they deviate from established rules or norms. Joseph Fletcher is credited with pioneering situation ethics. The sources draw a parallel between situation ethics and the Bhakti Marg in Indian tradition, which also emphasizes love as a foundational principle.

Agent-Focused Ethical Theories:

  • Virtue Ethics Virtue ethics shifts the focus from actions to the character of the individual. Rather than asking "what is the right thing to do?" virtue ethics asks "what kind of person should I be?" This approach emphasizes the cultivation of virtuous character traits, such as honesty, courage, compassion, and justice. Aristotle is considered a foundational figure in virtue ethics. He believed that by developing virtuous habits, individuals could live fulfilling and morally good lives.

    The sources highlight the role of intentions in virtue ethics, suggesting that the motivation behind an action is important in assessing its moral worth. Virtue ethics also considers the narrative of an individual's life, recognizing that moral development is an ongoing process.