PBSI 330 Exam 3

Learning & Conditioning

Types of Reinforcement (Operant Conditioning)

Operant conditioning (Skinner): behavior is influenced by consequences.

• Positive Reinforcement: adding something pleasant to increase behavior (e.g., praise).

• Negative Reinforcement: removing something unpleasant to increase behavior (e.g., taking away chores for good grades).

• Positive Punishment: adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior (e.g., extra work for being late).

• Negative Punishment: removing something pleasant to decrease behavior (e.g., losing phone privileges).

Impact on Personality:

Patterns of reinforcement and punishment shape habits and traits—like conscientiousness or aggression—over time.

Behavior Modification

Changing behavior through operant conditioning techniques (reinforcement, punishment, shaping).

• Effect on personality: can shift traits by consistently reinforcing new behaviors (e.g., becoming more assertive or disciplined).

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): naturally causes response (e.g., food).

• Neutral/Conditioned Stimulus (CS): originally neutral, becomes associated with UCS (e.g., bell).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): natural reaction (e.g., salivation).

• Conditioned Response (CR): learned reaction to CS (e.g., salivating to bell).

Relation to Personality:

Can create conditioned emotional responses, like anxiety or preference, influencing personality.

Locus of Control

• Internal: belief that outcomes are controlled by one’s actions.

• External: belief that outcomes are due to luck/fate.

Relation to Expectancies:

People with internal locus have stronger expectancies that their actions lead to results, affecting motivation and personality development.

Learning Theories & Social Learning

Socialization:

The lifelong process of learning norms, values, and behaviors appropriate to society.

• Influences personality via reinforcement and modeling from family, peers, and culture.

Reciprocal Determinism (Bandura)

• Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence each other.

• Relates to personality: personality both shapes and is shaped by surroundings.

Two Simple Ideas of Learning

1. Behavior is shaped by experiences.

2. Behavior is influenced by reinforcement/punishment.

Learning:

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Behaviorism:

Focuses on observable behavior, not internal thoughts/feelings.

• Relates to individual differences: differences in learning history explain personality differences.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Behavior influenced by consequences.

Methods of Shaping Behavior

Gradually reinforcing closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed-ratio: reward after set number of behaviors (e.g., every 5th sale).

• Variable-ratio: reward after unpredictable number of behaviors (e.g., slot machines).

• Fixed-interval: reward after set time (e.g., paycheck every 2 weeks).

• Variable-interval: reward after varying time (e.g., surprise quizzes).

Token Economy:

Behavioral system using tokens as reinforcement (used in schools, therapy).

• Can shape traits like self-control or cooperation.

Behavioral Activation:

Increasing positive reinforcement by scheduling enjoyable activities—used in therapy to treat depression.

Social Learning Theories

Notable Theorists

• Albert Bandura: observational learning, self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism.

• Rotter: locus of control, expectancies.

Observational Learning:

Learning by watching others (modeling).

• Impacts personality: kids may imitate aggression or prosocial behavior.

Expectancies:

Beliefs about the likelihood that a behavior will lead to a certain outcome.

Generalized Expectancies:

Overall beliefs about control (e.g., "hard work pays off").

Motivation & Goals

Approach vs. Avoidance Motivation

• Approach: moving toward positive outcomes (linked with extraversion, openness).

• Avoidance: avoiding negative outcomes (linked with neuroticism).

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological

2. Safety

3. Love/Belonging

4. Esteem

5. Self-actualization

Three Major Implicit Motives

1. Achievement: desire to excel.

2. Affiliation: desire for relationships.

3. Power: desire to have impact.

• Measured indirectly (e.g., picture story exercises like the TAT).

• Affect long-term behavior and satisfaction.

Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan)

Three basic psychological needs:

1. Autonomy

2. Competence

3. Relatedness

• Focuses on intrinsic motivation.

• Differs from Murray’s theory (which focuses on multiple needs).

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Goals

• Intrinsic: personal growth, meaningful relationships.

• Extrinsic: money, fame.

Relation to Personality:

Intrinsic goals lead to higher well-being and authenticity.

Overjustification Effect

External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation.

The Self

Self-Concept:

All beliefs about oneself (traits, roles, identity).

"I" vs. "Me"

• “I”: the observer, the knower (subjective self).

• “Me”: the known, self-concept (objective self).

Modern View of the Self:

A knowledge structure or schema—mental framework that influences how we process info about ourselves.

Self-Esteem

• One’s overall sense of self-worth.

• Benefits: confidence, resilience.

• Costs: can become narcissism if inflated.

• Measured via self-report (e.g., Rosenberg scale).

Implicit vs. Explicit Self-Esteem

• Implicit: automatic, unconscious (measured indirectly).

• Explicit: conscious self-evaluation.

Self-Esteem Regulation

Maintaining self-worth through strategies like self-affirmation or social comparison.

Sociometer Theory

Self-esteem reflects perceived social acceptance.

Self-Evaluation Maintenance (SEM) Model

We protect self-esteem by distancing from others who outperform us.

Self-Compassion

Being kind to yourself in failure.

• More stable than self-esteem, better for mental health.

Possible Selves

Future-oriented versions of the self.

• Ought Self: who you think you should be.

• Ideal Self: who you want to be.

Self-Discrepancy Theory

Emotional discomfort arises when there's a mismatch between actual, ideal, and ought selves.

Self-Schema

Mental framework about the self.

• Two facts:

  1. Guides attention and memory.

  2. Can vary across people/situations.

Material Self: possessions, body.

Social Self: roles, relationships.

• Self-Monitoring: adjusting behavior to fit social cues.

Spiritual Self: values, morals, inner self.

True Self & Authenticity

• Authenticity: being true to oneself.

• Four components: awareness, behavior, unbiased processing, relational orientation.

Imposter Phenomenon

Feeling like a fraud despite success—related to low self-concept, threatens authenticity.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in ability to succeed at a task.

• Linked to motivation, goal setting, perseverance.

Self-Regulation

Controlling behavior to reach goals.

Self-Monitoring vs. Self-Regulation

• Self-Monitoring: adapting to social cues.

• Self-Regulation: staying on track toward internal goals.

Self-Control

Delaying gratification for long-term goals. Important for trait development like conscientiousness.

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