Psychology Week 2 Lecture Notes

Learning Outcome:

Research Methods in Psychology

This lecture provides a comprehensive overview of research methods in psychology, exploring the goals of scientific inquiry, the research process, and key considerations for designing valid and reliable studies. The lecturer uses the example of depression and its relationship to unemployment and therapy to illustrate these concepts.

Goals of Scientific Research in Psychology

The fundamental goal of psychological research is to describe behavior and mental processes. → While established diagnostic tools like the DSM exist for conditions like depression, their limitations and evolving perspectives necessitate ongoing efforts to refine descriptions and understanding. → Beyond description, research aims to predict behaviors and mental processes. → This involves measurement, often using standardized scales like the DASS-21, to assess constructs like depression, anxiety, and stress. → Finally, research seeks to explain behavior, developing theories that account for observed patterns and relationships. → The lecturer presents a cyclical model linking poor health, unemployment, and depression, suggesting that therapy could interrupt this cycle.

-          The goal of psychological research is to describe behavior and mental processes

-          Diagnostic tools like DSM exist for conditions like depression, their limitations and evolving perspectives necessitate ongoing efforts to refine understanding and descriptions.

-          Beyond description, research aims to predict behaviors and mental processes (involving measurement, often using standardized scales like the DASS-21, to assess the constructs like depression, anxiety and stress.)

-          Research seeks to explain behavior developing theories that account for observed patterns and relationships

The Research Process

The scientific research process involves a cyclical series of steps: observation, question formulation, research, hypothesis/research question development, data collection/testing, analysis, and reporting conclusions. → Observations can stem from various sources, including previous research, news media, or personal theories. → Thorough research into existing literature is crucial to identify knowledge gaps, previous approaches, and potential limitations. → The lecturer emphasizes the importance of systematic reviews and meta-analyses, which synthesize findings from multiple studies. → Based on this research, a testable hypothesis (for experiments) or research question (for qualitative studies) is formulated. → The lecturer provides examples of both, highlighting the importance of operationalization – clearly defining and describing what will be measured and how. →

Research Design: Reliability, Accuracy, and Validity

Research design involves planning data collection, analysis, and reporting. → Crucially, the design must ensure reliability (consistency of measurement) and accuracy (closeness to the true value). → The lecturer uses the analogy of a target to illustrate these concepts, emphasizing that measurements should be both consistent and on target. → Validity refers to the extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure. → The lecturer distinguishes between internal validity (related to the research instrument) and external validity (generalizability to the real world). → The potential tension between these two types of validity, particularly in quantitative versus qualitative research, is acknowledged. →

-          Research design involves planning data collection, analysis and reporting

-          The design must ensure reliability (consistency of measurement) and accuracy (closeness to true value)

-          Validity refers to the extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure

-          Internal validity (related to research instrument)

-          External validity (generalizability to the real world)

SUMMARY of video

This lecture provides a foundational understanding of research methods in psychology. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of describing, predicting, and explaining behavior and mental processes. The cyclical research process, from observation to conclusion, is outlined, highlighting the importance of thorough literature review and careful research design. The concepts of reliability, accuracy, and validity are central to ensuring that research findings are meaningful and contribute to the development of robust psychological theories.

Overview of Research Design Concepts

o   Introduction to various research designs, emphasizing the importance of understanding terms and concepts in psychology research.

Types of Research Approaches

Quantitative Research

o   Focuses on measuring quantities and statistical testing of hypotheses.

o   Example question: "How happy are you?" (Response scale from 1 to 7).

Qualitative Research

o   Explores meaning, asking individuals about their experiences and observations.

o   Common methods: interviews and focus groups.

Mixed Methods

o   Combines quantitative and qualitative approaches but is more complex and merits detailed study.

Types of Research Designs

Descriptive Studies

Aim to describe behaviors using:

o   Case Studies: Intense investigation of a single individual or situation. Notable example: Phineas Gage, whose behavior changed after a brain injury.

o   Observation: Systematic watching and summarizing behaviors in natural settings (e.g., playground behaviors).

o   Surveys: Collect data through participants' responses to questions.

Correlational Studies

o   Investigate relationships between variables without establishing causation.

o   Example: Does an increase in one variable relate to an increase in another?

Experimental Studies

o   Conduct well-controlled experiments to establish causal relationships.

o   Must account for confounding variables.

Action Research (not covered)

o   Focuses on implementing change and observing its effects in real-world situations.

Case Studies

o   Strong advantages include detailed investigations and challenges traditional ideas.

o   Limitations include difficulties in establishing causation and generalization due to reliance on unique situations.

Observations

o   Effective for capturing genuine behavior but lacks causality due to uncontrolled variables.

o   Observer bias and the Hawthorne effect may impact results.

Descriptive and Correlational Studies

o   Questionnaires and Surveys

o   Efficiently gather large amounts of data yet face issues like self-selection bias and poorly designed questions.

o   Potential for social desirability bias in responses.

Introduction to Quantitative Methods

Quantitative Research Design & Statistics Notes

1. Types of Statistics

Descriptive Statistics: Numbers summarizing or describing data (mean, median, mode).

Central Tendency

o   Mean: Average of all data points.

o   Median: Middle value when data is arranged in order.

o   Mode: Most frequently occurring value.

o   Importance of understanding outliers and their impact on central tendency assessments.

o   Measures of Central Tendency 

o   Includes mean, median, and mode 

o   Standard deviation shows average variation from the mean 

Inferential Statistics: Making predictions and generalizations about a population based on sample data.

P-values and hypothesis testing:

o   P-values determine statistical significance 

o   Null hypothesis indicates no effect 

o   Correlation coefficients (r) measure relationship strength 

o   Importance of p-values in determining statistical significance.

o    Null Hypothesis: States no effect or relationship, while an alternative hypothesis suggests there is.

o    Common threshold is p < 0.05, indicating statistical significance.

2. Research Designs

Correlational Studies (correlation vs causation

o   Measure relationships between variables 

o   Can range from weak to perfect correlations

o   Important to note that correlation doesn't equal causation

o    Correlational studies reveal relationships but do not confirm causation.

o    Example: Height and weight are positively correlated, but do not cause each other.

o    Correlation does not cause causation

o    Spurious Correlations: False connections between unrelated variables.

Variability in Data

o   Range: Difference between the highest and lowest values.

o   Standard Deviation: Average measure of how much individual data points differ from the mean.

Experimental Research Design

o   Utilizes independent (manipulated) and dependent (measured) variables.

o   Need for rigorous control to eliminate confounding variables.

Sampling Methods

o   Importance of random sampling for representativeness versus convenience sampling, which can introduce bias.

Types of Experimental Design

o   Within-Subjects Design: Same participants tested in both conditions (pre-post measure).

o   Between-Subjects Design: Different participants in each condition, randomly assigned to avoid bias.

o   Importance of blind and double-blind designs to control for bias.

In psychological research, there are two main experimental approaches:

Within-Groups Design

o   Same participants tested before and after treatment 

o   Controls for individual differences but may have practice effects 

Between-Groups Design

o   Participants randomly split into experimental and control groups 

o   Experimental group receives treatment while control group doesn't 

Key considerations for valid experiments:

o   Use double-blind trials where neither participants nor experimenters know group assignments 5

o   Include objective measurements (e.g., cortisol, heart rate) alongside psychological observations 6

o   Control for confounding variables through proper sampling and randomization 7

o   Often relies on university students for convenience sampling

Qualitative Research Methodology

Definition and Purpose

o   Produces descriptive, non-numerical data, enabling understanding of individuals' perceptions.

Techniques in Qualitative Research

o   Various methods including in-depth interviews, focus groups, participant observations, and case studies.

o   Acknowledgment that qualitative research can include numerical aspects.

Analysis Techniques

o   Coding: Organizing qualitative data into categories/themes.

o   Thematic Analysis: Identifying patterns across qualitative data, offering insights into experiences.

Mixed Methods Research

o   Complexity of effectively combining qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Types of mixed method research:

o   Sequential: One method informs the other.

o   Concurrent: Both methods are conducted simultaneously but must be thoughtfully integrated.

Final Notes

o   Importance of planning mixed methods to ensure coherence and relevance.

o   Acknowledge the potential limitations and biases inherent in psychological studies

Ethics

Definition and Importance

o   Ethics are principles of morally right conduct accepted by a group or field 

o   Essential for ensuring research integrity and value 

o   Mandatory requirement in research, not just philosophical concept 

Historical Context

o   Nuremberg trials after WWII addressed Nazi medical experiments 

o   Led to establishment of ethical guidelines 

o   Issues continue into modern times with psychological research 

Key Ethical Principles

o   Informed consent

o   Right to withdraw 

o   Research must be free of deception unless justified 

o   Data must remain confidential and anonymous 

o   Must credit others' work properly / data ownership/sovereignty

o   Minimize harm

Aps guidelines

o   Justice

o   Respect

o   Informed consent

o   Privacy

o   Confidentiality

o   Release of information

Modern Guidelines

o   Australia has National Statement of Ethical Research with Humans 

o   Australian Psychological Society's Code of Ethics provides framework 

o   Researchers should internalize these principles early in their career