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Types of American Politics

1. Politics

• Definition: Involves power, resources, and methods of governance.

• Characterized by conflicts and compromises regarding issues and public policies.

• Collective action: How society allocates resources through cooperation.

2. Institutions

• Defined as established rules that frame social and political interactions.

• Examples of institutions include:

  • Congress

  • Courts

  • The presidency

3. Preferences

• Individuals hold different needs and priorities that influence decisions and policies.

4. Collective Action

• Addresses challenges in coordinating individual efforts toward common goals.

• Free-rider problem: Occurs when individuals benefit from resources without contributing to the collective effort.

5. Government & Authority

• Government: Institutions and processes that guide policy decisions.

• Authority: The recognized right to make decisions and enforce laws.

• Power: The capacity to influence others' actions.

6. Democracy & Representation

• Direct democracy: Citizens directly make policy decisions.

• Representative government: Elected officials make decisions on behalf of citizens.

• Republic: A government system with elected representatives and rule of law.

7. Constitutionalism

• Based on principles that limit governmental power.

• The U.S. Constitution establishes mechanisms of checks and balances.

8. Public Goods & Free Market

• Public goods: Services the government provides that individuals cannot easily supply (e.g., roads, national defense).

• Free market: An economic system driven by supply and demand with minimal government interference.

9. Collective Decision-Making Challenges

• Coordination problems: Difficulties in getting large groups to work together.

• Principal-agent problem: Elected representatives may act in their own self-interest rather than that of their constituents.

10. Policy-Making Process

• Steps in policy-making include:

  • Problem identification

  • Policy formulation

  • Policy implementation

  • Policy evaluation

Chapter 2: The U.S.’s First Constitution: The Articles of Confederation

1. Overview

• Characterized by a decentralized government with most power residing in states.

• Weak national government without an executive branch, national judiciary, or taxing authority.

• Major issue: federal government could not enforce laws or regulate trade.

2. Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787)

• Led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays.

• Farmers protested economic injustices in Massachusetts, focusing on debt and taxation.

• Highlighted weaknesses in the Articles, prompting the need for a stronger national government.

• Resulted in the Constitutional Convention of 1787.

3. The Constitutional Convention (1787)

• Delegates gathered in Philadelphia to create a new constitution.

• Central issue: representation in Congress.

  • Virginia Plan: Supported by large states, proposed a bicameral legislature based on population.

  • New Jersey Plan: Supported by smaller states, proposed a unicameral legislature with equal representation.

4. Compromise Achievements

• The Great Compromise: Resulted in a bicameral Congress:

  • House of Representatives: Based on population.

  • Senate: Equal representation for all states.

• Three-Fifths Compromise: Enslaved persons counted as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes.

5. Separation of Powers & Checks and Balances

• Divides government into three branches:

  • Legislative (Congress): Creates laws.

  • Executive (President): Enforces laws.

  • Judicial (Courts): Interprets laws.

• Each branch can check the powers of the others.

6. Ratification of the Constitution

• Federalists: Supported the Constitution; favored a strong central government.

• Anti-Federalists: Opposed it; feared centralized power.

• The Federalist Papers: Series of essays advocating for ratification.

• The Bill of Rights was included to address concerns about individual liberties.

Key Constitutional Clauses and Concepts

1. Supremacy Clause

• Established that federal law supersedes state law.

• Promotes uniform legal standards across states.

2. Judicial Review

• Established through Marbury v. Madison (1803).

• Empowers courts to declare laws unconstitutional.

3. Amendment Process

• Two primary methods for amending the Constitution:

  • Congressional Proposal: Requires 2/3 vote in both chambers; ratified by states.

  • Constitutional Convention: Called by 2/3 of state legislatures; ratified by 3/4 of states.

4. Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists

• Federalists: Advocated for a robust central government.

• Anti-Federalists: Preferred stronger state authorities.

5. Federalist Paper No. 10 (by James Madison)

• Discusses managing factions within a large republic.

• Advocates for a representative democracy over direct democracy to prevent domination by any single faction.

6. Federalist Paper No. 51 (by James Madison)

• Emphasizes the necessity of separation of powers and checks and balances to avert tyranny.

• States that each government branch must be independent, and ambition must counteract ambition to ensure accountability.

Chapter 11: Elections and Voting

Voting & Representation

• Historical limits on voting rights expanded through amendments (15th, 19th, 26th).

• Current voter turnout often below 50% in midterm elections.

• Barriers to voting include registration laws, voter ID requirements, and limited polling places.

Reasons People Vote (or Don’t)

• Factors influencing voting include:

  • Time constraints

  • Accessibility

  • Perception that one's vote has little impact (political efficacy).

Elections & Campaigns

Election Basics

• Candidates need funding and media presence to be competitive.

• Role of campaign ads:

  • Positive Ads: Highlight candidates’ achievements.

  • Negative Ads: Critique opponents.

  • Contrast Ads: Compare candidates.

Campaign Finance & Money in Politics

• Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) (1971): Regulated campaign finance.

• Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Allowed unlimited spending by corporations and unions in campaigns.

• Differentiation between hard money (direct donations) and soft money (indirect spending).

Role of Media in Elections

• Candidates depend on media for visibility.

• Influence of social media on campaigning dynamics.

• Attack ads and misinformation affect public perception.

Chapter 3: Federalism

What is Federalism?

• Defines a system where authority is divided between national and state governments.

• Examples illustrate the contrast in federal and state powers (e.g., marijuana legality).

Types of Federalism

1. Dual Federalism (Layer Cake Federalism):

   • Distinct separation of responsibilities for state and national governments.

   • Example: Education controlled at the state level, while foreign affairs managed federally.

2. Cooperative Federalism (Marble Cake Federalism):

   • Merging of responsibilities between national and state governments.

   • Example: Welfare programs that involve both levels of government.

Federalism Over Time

• New Federalism: A trend toward devolving power back to states since the 1980s.

• Block grants: Allow states greater discretion in managing federal funds.

Important Constitutional Clauses Related to Federalism

1. Supremacy Clause: Ensures federal law takes precedence over state law.

2. Necessary and Proper Clause: Grants Congress implied powers beyond those specified in the Constitution.

3. Commerce Clause: Authorizes Congress to regulate interstate commerce.

Key Supreme Court Cases on Federalism

• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Affirmed Congress’s implied powers and federal supremacy.

• NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel (1937): Expanded federal authority over industrial regulations.

Political Development & Civil Rights

Early Political Developments

• 1870s: African Americans granted voting rights via the 15th Amendment; however, states introduced restrictive measures (literacy tests, poll taxes).

• 1965 Voting Rights Act: Worked to remove barriers impacting Black voter registration and participation.

• Current issues include voter ID laws and gerrymandering debates.

Civil Rights Movements

• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Legitimized segregation with the doctrine of 'separate but equal.'

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Declared segregation unconstitutional.

• Civil Rights Act of 1964: Prohibited discrimination in public accommodations and employment.

California Politics & Direct Democracy

California’s Unique Voting Rules

• Referendums: Voters can approve or reject state legislation.

• Initiatives: Citizens propose new laws or amendments to the constitution.

• Recalls: Mechanism allowing voters to remove elected officials before their terms conclude.

Direct Democracy vs. Representative Democracy

• Direct democracy provides voters direct input on policies, unlike a representative system.

• Concerns:

  • Vulnerability to special interest manipulation.

  • Complexity of policies may overwhelm voters.

California’s Election System

• Extensive use of mail-in voting compared to other states.

• Voter turnout by demographics:

  • White: 44%

  • Latino: 32%

  • Asian: 38%

• 2000 Political Reform Act: Legislation for campaign finance transparency.

Campaigns & Voter Outreach

• Modern campaigns leverage media and technology:

  • Media Campaigns: Utilize TV and online platforms for voter engagement.

  • Voter Mobilization: Strategies designed for increased turnout.

• Challenges include:

  • Prevalence of negative advertising.

  • Voter apathy stemming from disconnection from political issues.

Elections & Interest Groups

Interest Groups & Lobbying (Chapter 4)

• Interest groups are pivotal in shaping public policy, encompassing:

  • Economic Groups: Represent business and trade interests.

  • Public Interest Groups: Advocate for social causes.

  • Single-Issue Groups: Centered on specific agendas (e.g., NRA).

Lobbying Defined

• The act of influencing legislation through information or campaign funding.

• Types of lobbying include**:

  • Insider Lobbying: Direct communication with lawmakers.

  • Grassroots Lobbying: Mobilizing public support for a cause.

Challenges & Concerns

• Discussion on the influence of money in politics and ethical issues linked to revolving doors between politics and lobbying.

• Reform measures through campaign finance laws to mitigate undue influence.

Political Parties (Chapter 12)

• Political parties facilitate electoral processes and connect the electorate to governance. Key functions include:

  • Candidate Recruitment

  • Voter Mobilization

  • Policy Development

Modern Party Challenges

• Political polarization has increased between parties.

• Independents pose a growing challenge as more voters avoid party allegiance.

Evolution of the U.S. Party System

1. First Party System (1790s-1824): Federalists versus Democratic-Republicans.

2. Second Party System (1828-1854): Democrats (Jackson-led) competing against Whigs.

3. Third Party System (1854-1896): Emergence of the Republican Party amid anti-slavery sentiments.

4. Fourth Party System (1896-1932): Economic issues shape political power.

5. Fifth Party System (1932-present): Strengthening of the Democratic Party via the New Deal Coalition.

Current Party System Challenges

• Increasing polarization between major parties.

• Shifting dynamics with rising numbers of independent voters.

• Evolution of media use in party strategy.

Regulation of Interest Groups

Federal Regulation of Lobbying

• Lobbying Disclosure Act (1995): Mandates lobbyists report their activities and expenditures.

• Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Affirmed the right of corporations and unions to unlimited political spending.

Interest Groups & Political Action Committees (PACs)

• PACs are crucial in donating to candidates and influencing elections:

  • Super PACs: Can amass unlimited funds but cannot directly coordinate with candidates.

Lobbying Strategies

• Various strategies employed by lobbyists:

  • Direct Lobbying: Engaging lawmakers in discussions.

  • Grassroots Lobbying: Mobilizing public sentiment.

  • Litigation: Legal actions to challenge laws.

Concerns About Interest Groups & PACs

• The ethical implications of large donations leading to disproportionate influence.

• Challenges posed by the revolving door of officials transitioning to lobbying roles.

Chapter 6: Congress

Structure of Congress

• Bicameral legislature consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate:

  • House: 435 members based on population.

  • Senate: 100 members, two per state.

Functions of Congress

• Core responsibilities encompass:

  • Lawmaking

  • Fiscal oversight

  • Investigative functions.

Challenges in Congress

• Adds complexity to the legislative process due to:

  • Partisan gridlock

  • Filibusters

  • Influence from lobbying entities.

Congressional Committees & Legislative Process

Legislative Process Overview

• Steps to generate a law:

  • Introduction of a bill

  • Committee assignment for debate

  • Chamber voting

  • Reconciliation by a conference committee for differing versions.

  • Final action by the president (approve or veto).

Key Legislative Challenges

• Notable challenges include filibusters, lobbying influence, and budgetary constraints.

Presidency & State Governance

Role of the Governor & President

• Both serve as executive leaders but at different governance levels.

• Authority includes signing or vetoing bills and overseeing agencies.

Executive Powers

• Powers held by the president and governors encompass:

  • Legislative initiative

  • Appointment powers

  • Judicial functions (e.g., granting pardons).

State Executive Roles

• Overview of key state executive offices:

  • Lieutenant Governor: Functions as VP in the state context.

  • Attorney General: Chief legal officer for the state.

  • Secretary of State: Manages elections and record-keeping.

  • Treasurer & Comptroller: Directs state financial matters.

Bureaucracy & Implementation of Government Policies

Role of Bureaucracy

• Bureaucratic agencies are charged with implementing laws and policies.

• Composed of career officials regardless of political administration changes.

• Balances regulatory oversight with administrative efficiency.

Types of Bureaucratic Agencies

• Breakdown include:

  • Cabinet Departments (e.g., State, Defense)

  • Independent Agencies (e.g., NASA, EPA)

  • Regulatory Commissions (e.g., FCC, SEC)

  • Government Corporations (e.g., USPS, Amtrak)

Key Bureaucratic Issues

• Ongoing debates regarding regulatory balance, political influence, and public interest.

• Administrative Procedures Act (APA): Ensures agencies adhere to fair rule-making.

California Politics – State Legislature & Political Procedures

California Legislature Overview

• Bicameral system comprising:

  • State Senate: 40 members, elected for four-year staggered terms.

  • State Assembly: 80 members, elected for two-year terms.

• Predominantly Democratic majority in recent electoral cycles.

Legislative Process

• Bills must be approved by both chambers before reaching the governor’s desk:

  • Supermajority Required: For tax policy changes.

  • Simple Majority Suffices: For standard legislation.

Key Issues in California Politics

• Discussion points include term limits established by Proposition 140, redistricting managed by independent commissions, and lobbying influences by special interest groups and PACs.