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Types of American Politics
1. Politics
Definition: Involves power, resources, and methods of governance.
Characterized by conflicts and compromises regarding issues and public policies.
Collective action: How society allocates resources through cooperation.
2. Institutions
Defined as established rules that frame social and political interactions.
Examples of institutions include:
Congress
Courts
The presidency
3. Preferences
Individuals hold different needs and priorities that influence decisions and policies.
4. Collective Action
Addresses challenges in coordinating individual efforts toward common goals.
Free-rider problem: Occurs when individuals benefit from resources without contributing to the collective effort.
5. Government & Authority
Government: Institutions and processes that guide policy decisions.
Authority: The recognized right to make decisions and enforce laws.
Power: The capacity to influence others' actions.
6. Democracy & Representation
Direct democracy: Citizens directly make policy decisions.
Representative government: Elected officials make decisions on behalf of citizens.
Republic: A government system with elected representatives and rule of law.
7. Constitutionalism
Based on principles that limit governmental power.
The U.S. Constitution establishes mechanisms of checks and balances.
8. Public Goods & Free Market
Public goods: Services the government provides that individuals cannot easily supply (e.g., roads, national defense).
Free market: An economic system driven by supply and demand with minimal government interference.
9. Collective Decision-Making Challenges
Coordination problems: Difficulties in getting large groups to work together.
Principal-agent problem: Elected representatives may act in their own self-interest rather than that of their constituents.
10. Policy-Making Process
Steps in policy-making include:
Problem identification
Policy formulation
Policy implementation
Policy evaluation
Chapter 2: The U.S.’s First Constitution: The Articles of Confederation
1. Overview
Characterized by a decentralized government with most power residing in states.
Weak national government without an executive branch, national judiciary, or taxing authority.
Major issue: federal government could not enforce laws or regulate trade.
2. Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787)
Led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays.
Farmers protested economic injustices in Massachusetts, focusing on debt and taxation.
Highlighted weaknesses in the Articles, prompting the need for a stronger national government.
Resulted in the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
3. The Constitutional Convention (1787)
Delegates gathered in Philadelphia to create a new constitution.
Central issue: representation in Congress.
Virginia Plan: Supported by large states, proposed a bicameral legislature based on population.
New Jersey Plan: Supported by smaller states, proposed a unicameral legislature with equal representation.
4. Compromise Achievements
The Great Compromise: Resulted in a bicameral Congress:
House of Representatives: Based on population.
Senate: Equal representation for all states.
Three-Fifths Compromise: Enslaved persons counted as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes.
5. Separation of Powers & Checks and Balances
Divides government into three branches:
Legislative (Congress): Creates laws.
Executive (President): Enforces laws.
Judicial (Courts): Interprets laws.
Each branch can check the powers of the others.
6. Ratification of the Constitution
Federalists: Supported the Constitution; favored a strong central government.
Anti-Federalists: Opposed it; feared centralized power.
The Federalist Papers: Series of essays advocating for ratification.
The Bill of Rights was included to address concerns about individual liberties.
Key Constitutional Clauses and Concepts
1. Supremacy Clause
Established that federal law supersedes state law.
Promotes uniform legal standards across states.
2. Judicial Review
Established through Marbury v. Madison (1803).
Empowers courts to declare laws unconstitutional.
3. Amendment Process
Two primary methods for amending the Constitution:
Congressional Proposal: Requires 2/3 vote in both chambers; ratified by states.
Constitutional Convention: Called by 2/3 of state legislatures; ratified by 3/4 of states.
4. Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
Federalists: Advocated for a robust central government.
Anti-Federalists: Preferred stronger state authorities.
5. Federalist Paper No. 10 (by James Madison)
Discusses managing factions within a large republic.
Advocates for a representative democracy over direct democracy to prevent domination by any single faction.
6. Federalist Paper No. 51 (by James Madison)
Emphasizes the necessity of separation of powers and checks and balances to avert tyranny.
States that each government branch must be independent, and ambition must counteract ambition to ensure accountability.
Chapter 11: Elections and Voting
Voting & Representation
Historical limits on voting rights expanded through amendments (15th, 19th, 26th).
Current voter turnout often below 50% in midterm elections.
Barriers to voting include registration laws, voter ID requirements, and limited polling places.
Reasons People Vote (or Don’t)
Factors influencing voting include:
Time constraints
Accessibility
Perception that one's vote has little impact (political efficacy).
Elections & Campaigns
Election Basics
Candidates need funding and media presence to be competitive.
Role of campaign ads:
Positive Ads: Highlight candidates’ achievements.
Negative Ads: Critique opponents.
Contrast Ads: Compare candidates.
Campaign Finance & Money in Politics
Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) (1971): Regulated campaign finance.
Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Allowed unlimited spending by corporations and unions in campaigns.
Differentiation between hard money (direct donations) and soft money (indirect spending).
Role of Media in Elections
Candidates depend on media for visibility.
Influence of social media on campaigning dynamics.
Attack ads and misinformation affect public perception.
Chapter 3: Federalism
What is Federalism?
Defines a system where authority is divided between national and state governments.
Examples illustrate the contrast in federal and state powers (e.g., marijuana legality).
Types of Federalism
Dual Federalism (Layer Cake Federalism):
Distinct separation of responsibilities for state and national governments.
Example: Education controlled at the state level, while foreign affairs managed federally.
Cooperative Federalism (Marble Cake Federalism):
Merging of responsibilities between national and state governments.
Example: Welfare programs that involve both levels of government.
Federalism Over Time
New Federalism: A trend toward devolving power back to states since the 1980s.
Block grants: Allow states greater discretion in managing federal funds.
Important Constitutional Clauses Related to Federalism
Supremacy Clause: Ensures federal law takes precedence over state law.
Necessary and Proper Clause: Grants Congress implied powers beyond those specified in the Constitution.
Commerce Clause: Authorizes Congress to regulate interstate commerce.
Key Supreme Court Cases on Federalism
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Affirmed Congress’s implied powers and federal supremacy.
NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel (1937): Expanded federal authority over industrial regulations.
Political Development & Civil Rights
Early Political Developments
1870s: African Americans granted voting rights via the 15th Amendment; however, states introduced restrictive measures (literacy tests, poll taxes).
1965 Voting Rights Act: Worked to remove barriers impacting Black voter registration and participation.
Current issues include voter ID laws and gerrymandering debates.
Civil Rights Movements
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Legitimized segregation with the doctrine of 'separate but equal.'
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Declared segregation unconstitutional.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: Prohibited discrimination in public accommodations and employment.
California Politics & Direct Democracy
California’s Unique Voting Rules
Referendums: Voters can approve or reject state legislation.
Initiatives: Citizens propose new laws or amendments to the constitution.
Recalls: Mechanism allowing voters to remove elected officials before their terms conclude.
Direct Democracy vs. Representative Democracy
Direct democracy provides voters direct input on policies, unlike a representative system.
Concerns:
Vulnerability to special interest manipulation.
Complexity of policies may overwhelm voters.
California’s Election System
Extensive use of mail-in voting compared to other states.
Voter turnout by demographics:
White: 44%
Latino: 32%
Asian: 38%
2000 Political Reform Act: Legislation for campaign finance transparency.
Campaigns & Voter Outreach
Modern campaigns leverage media and technology:
Media Campaigns: Utilize TV and online platforms for voter engagement.
Voter Mobilization: Strategies designed for increased turnout.
Challenges include:
Prevalence of negative advertising.
Voter apathy stemming from disconnection from political issues.
Elections & Interest Groups
Interest Groups & Lobbying (Chapter 4)
Interest groups are pivotal in shaping public policy, encompassing:
Economic Groups: Represent business and trade interests.
Public Interest Groups: Advocate for social causes.
Single-Issue Groups: Centered on specific agendas (e.g., NRA).
Lobbying Defined
The act of influencing legislation through information or campaign funding.
Types of lobbying include**:
Insider Lobbying: Direct communication with lawmakers.
Grassroots Lobbying: Mobilizing public support for a cause.
Challenges & Concerns
Discussion on the influence of money in politics and ethical issues linked to revolving doors between politics and lobbying.
Reform measures through campaign finance laws to mitigate undue influence.
Political Parties (Chapter 12)
Political parties facilitate electoral processes and connect the electorate to governance. Key functions include:
Candidate Recruitment
Voter Mobilization
Policy Development
Modern Party Challenges
Political polarization has increased between parties.
Independents pose a growing challenge as more voters avoid party allegiance.
Evolution of the U.S. Party System
First Party System (1790s-1824): Federalists versus Democratic-Republicans.
Second Party System (1828-1854): Democrats (Jackson-led) competing against Whigs.
Third Party System (1854-1896): Emergence of the Republican Party amid anti-slavery sentiments.
Fourth Party System (1896-1932): Economic issues shape political power.
Fifth Party System (1932-present): Strengthening of the Democratic Party via the New Deal Coalition.
Current Party System Challenges
Increasing polarization between major parties.
Shifting dynamics with rising numbers of independent voters.
Evolution of media use in party strategy.
Regulation of Interest Groups
Federal Regulation of Lobbying
Lobbying Disclosure Act (1995): Mandates lobbyists report their activities and expenditures.
Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Affirmed the right of corporations and unions to unlimited political spending.
Interest Groups & Political Action Committees (PACs)
PACs are crucial in donating to candidates and influencing elections:
Super PACs: Can amass unlimited funds but cannot directly coordinate with candidates.
Lobbying Strategies
Various strategies employed by lobbyists:
Direct Lobbying: Engaging lawmakers in discussions.
Grassroots Lobbying: Mobilizing public sentiment.
Litigation: Legal actions to challenge laws.
Concerns About Interest Groups & PACs
The ethical implications of large donations leading to disproportionate influence.
Challenges posed by the revolving door of officials transitioning to lobbying roles.
Chapter 6: Congress
Structure of Congress
Bicameral legislature consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate:
House: 435 members based on population.
Senate: 100 members, two per state.
Functions of Congress
Core responsibilities encompass:
Lawmaking
Fiscal oversight
Investigative functions.
Challenges in Congress
Adds complexity to the legislative process due to:
Partisan gridlock
Filibusters
Influence from lobbying entities.
Congressional Committees & Legislative Process
Legislative Process Overview
Steps to generate a law:
Introduction of a bill
Committee assignment for debate
Chamber voting
Reconciliation by a conference committee for differing versions.
Final action by the president (approve or veto).
Key Legislative Challenges
Notable challenges include filibusters, lobbying influence, and budgetary constraints.
Presidency & State Governance
Role of the Governor & President
Both serve as executive leaders but at different governance levels.
Authority includes signing or vetoing bills and overseeing agencies.
Executive Powers
Powers held by the president and governors encompass:
Legislative initiative
Appointment powers
Judicial functions (e.g., granting pardons).
State Executive Roles
Overview of key state executive offices:
Lieutenant Governor: Functions as VP in the state context.
Attorney General: Chief legal officer for the state.
Secretary of State: Manages elections and record-keeping.
Treasurer & Comptroller: Directs state financial matters.
Bureaucracy & Implementation of Government Policies
Role of Bureaucracy
Bureaucratic agencies are charged with implementing laws and policies.
Composed of career officials regardless of political administration changes.
Balances regulatory oversight with administrative efficiency.
Types of Bureaucratic Agencies
Breakdown include:
Cabinet Departments (e.g., State, Defense)
Independent Agencies (e.g., NASA, EPA)
Regulatory Commissions (e.g., FCC, SEC)
Government Corporations (e.g., USPS, Amtrak)
Key Bureaucratic Issues
Ongoing debates regarding regulatory balance, political influence, and public interest.
Administrative Procedures Act (APA): Ensures agencies adhere to fair rule-making.
California Politics – State Legislature & Political Procedures
California Legislature Overview
Bicameral system comprising:
State Senate: 40 members, elected for four-year staggered terms.
State Assembly: 80 members, elected for two-year terms.
Predominantly Democratic majority in recent electoral cycles.
Legislative Process
Bills must be approved by both chambers before reaching the governor’s desk:
Supermajority Required: For tax policy changes.
Simple Majority Suffices: For standard legislation.
Key Issues in California Politics
Discussion points include term limits established by Proposition 140, redistricting managed by independent commissions, and lobbying influences by special interest groups and PACs.