In-depth Notes on Evolution and Natural Selection

History and Evidence for Evolution

Major Sources of Evidence for Evolution

1. Artificial Selection: Humans selectively breed organisms for desired traits.

2. Research Studies Documenting Change: Empirical studies observing changes in species.

3. Antibiotic, Drug, and Pesticide Resistance: Observable evolutionary changes in response to environmental pressures.

4. Paleontology: Fossil records indicating historical life forms.

5. Homologies: Similar structures across species indicating common ancestry.

   • Structural Homologies: Anatomical similarities.

   • Molecular Homologies: Genetic similarities.

   • Embryological Homologies: Similar development stages.

6. Coevolution: Species evolving in response to each other.

Artificial Selection

Overview

• Concept: Origin of Darwin's theory in selective breeding. Humans breed animals and plants based on favorable traits.

• Examples: Corn, cattle, dog breeds demonstrate natural selection's principles in a controlled manner.

Importance

• Illustrates fitness and descent with modification. It shows how traits can be selected for survival and reproduction.

Research Studies

Finch Beaks - Peter and Rosemary Grant

• Long-term research on Darwin's finches reveals how beak size changes with seed availability.

  • Wet Years: Small seeds, favor smaller beaks.

  • Dry Years: Large seeds, favor larger beaks.

• Guppy Studies - John Endler

  • Brightly colored male guppies thrive in predator-poor environments.

  • Transfer experiments showed color variation in response to predation risk, reinforcing natural selection principles.

Antibiotic Resistance

Drug-resistant HIV

• Rapid reproduction allows variations; resistant viruses survive treatment. This highlights the importance of completing antibiotic courses to prevent resistance from developing.

Pesticide Resistance in Insects

• Continued pesticide use leads to population shifts favoring resistant insects over time.

Fossil Record in Paleontology

• Fossils provide historical insights into past life forms. Transitional fossils link extinct and modern species, filling gaps in evolutionary history.

Morphology: Homologous Structures

• Homologous Structures: Similar anatomical features from a common ancestor, showing divergent evolution.

  • Examples: Humans, bats, and whales show similar forearm structures.

• Analogous Structures: Different structures serving similar functions (e.g., wings of birds and bats). They demonstrate convergent evolution.

• Vestigial Structures: Remnants of features once used, indicating ancestral traits (e.g., appendix, wisdom teeth in humans).

Molecular Biochemistry

• Molecular Data: DNA comparisons help reveal evolutionary relationships, with pseudogenes as genetic vestiges.

Comparative Embryology

• Similar embryonic development across vertebrates suggests common ancestry.

Coevolution

• Definition: Mutual evolutionary influence between two species (e.g., pollinators and plants).

Natural Selection Principles

• Key Concepts: Natural selection doesn't create traits but edits existing variations based on fitness relative to the environment. Evolution requires time and occurs at the population level, not in individuals.

History of Evolutionary Ideas

• Prevailing views before Darwin centered on immutability and perfection of species. Darwin's theory introduced change through selection pressures for adaptation and survival.

Fundamental Definitions

• Evolution: Changes in populations over time.

• Natural Selection: Mechanism by which certain traits enhance survival and reproduction, passed to future generations.

Lamarck vs. Darwin

• Lamarck's Theory: Acquired traits during a lifetime could be inherited.

• Darwin's Theory: Evolution through natural selection, with descent of modifications over time showing how species adapt.

Four Principles of Natural Selection

1. Variation: Traits differ among individuals.

2. Competition: Limited resources necessitate competition.

3. Adaptation: Traits beneficial to reproduction increase over time.

4. Descent with Modification: Populations evolve with new advantageous traits becoming more common.

Speciation Methods and Patterns

Speciation Overview

• Definition: Formation of new species due to genetic divergence over time.

• Can occur via reproductive isolation methods, either allopatric (geographical separation) or sympatric (without barriers).

Divergent vs. Convergent Evolution

• Divergent Evolution: One ancestral species evolving into several due to adaptation to diverse environments.

• Convergent Evolution: Different species evolve similar traits due to similar environmental pressures.

Adaptive Radiation

• A form of divergent evolution where species adapt to niches. Example: Darwin’s finches on the Galapagos Islands.

Evolutionary Forces Affecting Speciation

1. Genetic Drift: Random changes due to small populations.

2. Gene Flow: Movement of genes among populations increases genetic variation.

3. Mutations: Changes to DNA that can introduce new traits.

4. Non-Random Mating: Preferences in mate selection can affect genetic frequencies.

5. Natural Selection: Environmental pressures favor certain traits.

Patterns of Natural Selection

1. Stabilizing Selection: Favors average traits, reducing extremes (e.g., human birth weights).

2. Directional Selection: Favors one extreme trait (e.g., giraffe neck lengths).

3. Disruptive Selection: Favors both extremes while eliminating average traits (e.g., size in Chinook Salmon).

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

• A model where allele frequencies remain constant, indicating no evolution occurs. Useful for assessing population changes.

• Equations: :

  • p + q = 1 (where p = frequency of dominant allele, q = frequency of recessive allele)

  • p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

  • Practice problems apply these equations to real scenarios.

Origins of Life Theories

• Miller-Urey Experiment: Demonstrated organic molecules can form from inorganic precursors.

• Endosymbiotic Theory: Explaining how eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotes.

Fossil Records and Dating Methods

• Types and methods of fossil dating, including relative dating and radiometric dating to establish timelines of evolutionary history.

Evolutionary Timelines and Living Fossils

• Analysis of DNA shows connections among species, aiding in the understanding of evolutionary history, including the identification of living fossils through genetic similarities.

Conclusion

Understanding evolution requires a comprehensive view of processes, mechanisms, and historical context. Each piece of evidence, whether genetic, fossil, or observational, contributes to the larger picture of how life adapts and changes over time.