Sociology Exam 2

Broken Windows Theory: A theory suggesting that visible signs of disorder (such as broken windows, graffiti, or minor offenses) encourage more serious crimes. 

• Dunier touches on this theory in relation to how visible "disorder" on the sidewalk can lead to increased policing and social control, especially with behaviors associated with street workers.

• Stop-and-frisk policing: A policing practice where individuals are stopped by police and searched for weapons or illegal items without a warrant. 

  • This practice is discussed in Sidewalk as part of the broader strategy used by police to manage public spaces and address perceived deviance, particularly in urban areas where street workers are often targeted.

• Quality of life campaigns: Policies or initiatives focused on improving the livability of urban spaces, often by reducing minor offenses or addressing public nuisances like loitering or public urination. 

  • Benefits people of middle/upper class 

  • Disproportionately harms working class/street vendors 

Ballet of the sidewalk: Social order kept through actively and continuously making use of sidewalks 

• Coordinated social interactions and negotiations 

Eyes on the street: How the presence of people in public spaces can contribute to informal social control

• People self-regulating social order 

Normalization of deviance: The process by which behaviors that were once considered deviant or unacceptable become normalized or accepted over time

Loyalty trap: A situation where individuals, particularly civil servants, are caught between competing demands of loyalty—to the political leadership, the organization they work for, and their own moral compass

• Moral dissonance: A psychological state that arises when a person's values or morals are in conflict with their actions or the expectations of their environment

  • Professional moral conflict: the ethical dilemma civil servants face when their professional obligations to serve the public and uphold democratic values conflict with the demands of an autocratic regime. 

    • Mutual toleration: A concept referring to the willingness of political parties or groups to accept the legitimacy of their opponents in a democracy 

    • Forbearance: The act of exercising restraint or patience, particularly in the context of political or institutional behavior. 

      • In Kucinskas' book, forbearance refers to the civil servants' ability to withhold judgment or action even when they disagree with the policies of an autocratic regime, navigating their moral conflict by maintaining a neutral stance.

    • Serial partisanship: Civil servants commit to the constitution overtime 

    • Nonpartisanship: The principle of remaining neutral and not aligning with any particular political party or ideology

  • Personal moral conflict: The internal struggle civil servants face when their personal values clash with the demands of their role under an autocratic regime 

    • This conflict arises when individuals' beliefs about right and wrong contradict the actions or policies they are asked to support, leading to ethical dilemmas

Neutralization techniques: Strategies used by individuals to justify or rationalize behaviors that would normally be considered unethical or immoral.

• Civil servants might use neutralization techniques to reconcile their participation in autocratic systems with their own moral values, such as downplaying the severity of their actions or blaming higher authorities.

Moral courage: The ability to stand up for one's moral beliefs and values, even in the face of significant personal or professional risk. 

• Kucinskas discusses how civil servants who demonstrate moral courage might resist or challenge autocratic pressures, maintaining their ethical principles despite the consequences they may face in a rising autocracy.

Race: A social construct used to categorize people based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture

Racism: Prejudicial beliefs, attitudes, and actions that promote discrimination and inequality based on race

• Overt racism: Explicit, intentional forms of racism, such as racial slurs, discriminatory laws, or segregation 

  • Overt racism is more visible and direct, and Alexander discusses how it was once more pervasive in American society but has been replaced by more subtle forms in the post-Civil Rights era

• Covert racism: Subtle, hidden forms of racism that are not as openly displayed but still result in discrimination and unequal treatment. 

  • This type of racism is more insidious and is often harder to detect. 

  • In The New Jim Crow, covert racism is a central theme, particularly in how it manifests in the criminal justice system, through policies like the War on Drugs.

Racial caste system: A system of racial stratification that confines people of certain races, especially Black Americans, to a permanent subordinate status 

• Alexander argues that mass incarceration has created a new racial caste system, in which millions of Black men are marginalized, disenfranchised, and excluded from full participation in society 

• Structural racism: The systemic, institutionalized ways that racial inequality is embedded in society’s structures, including the criminal justice system, education, housing, and employment 

  • Structural racism is a key theme in The New Jim Crow, where Alexander discusses how policies like the War on Drugs disproportionately target Black communities, perpetuating racial disparities.

• Racial stigma: The negative stereotypes and societal labels that are attached to people of certain races, particularly Black Americans. 

  • Racial stigma plays a central role in how individuals who have been incarcerated are treated, even after they have served their sentences, leading to continued discrimination and marginalization.

• Racial indifference: A lack of awareness or concern about racial injustice, often framed as colorblindness. 

• Racial bribe: A discriminatory practice that gives a false sense of racial superiority to a group of people, often with the goal of preventing them from challenging the status quo

  • Alexander discusses how white Americans are offered a "racial bribe" through policies like mass incarceration, which reinforces racial hierarchies while granting white individuals social, economic, and political advantages.

Geographies of exclusion: The physical and social separation of racial groups through laws, policies, or practices that create barriers to access and opportunity. 

• Alexander explores how Black people, particularly those affected by mass incarceration, are excluded from mainstream society, whether through residential segregation, disenfranchisement, or lack of access to employment and education.

System of remote control: A term used to describe how immigration enforcement operates beyond the immediate border, impacting undocumented individuals through policies like workplace raids, surveillance, and deportation efforts that affect their daily lives 

• Gonzales discusses this system as one that controls the lives of undocumented immigrants even after they enter the country, keeping them in a state of constant vulnerability

Classical assimilation theory: The idea that immigrants, over time, will gradually adopt the cultural norms, values, and behaviors of the dominant society, eventually becoming indistinguishable from native-born citizens 

• Gonzales critiques this theory, particularly in the context of undocumented immigrants, arguing that their experiences of exclusion and marginalization disrupt the expectation of full assimilation

• Everyone follows the same path 

Segmented assimilation theory: A more nuanced theory of assimilation that suggests immigrants may assimilate into different segments of society depending on factors like race, class, and immigration status

• Gonzales uses this theory to examine how undocumented youth may face barriers to assimilation that are shaped by their legal status and the structural inequalities they encounter

• Everyone doesn’t follow the same path 

Social citizenship: The rights and access to resources (like healthcare, education, and employment) that individuals can claim based on their membership in a society (doesn’t matter status). 

• Gonzales discusses how undocumented immigrants, despite being part of society, are excluded from full social citizenship due to their legal status, which limits their ability to participate fully in social and economic life 

Transition to illegality: The process by which individuals who were once in the country legally (e.g., on a student visa or family visa) become undocumented due to changes in their status, such as visa expiration or the loss of legal protections

• Master status: A social identity that overshadows all other identities, often dictating how an individual is perceived and treated by others

  • In the case of undocumented immigrants, Gonzales argues that their legal status becomes their master status, overriding other aspects of their identity (such as their education or job skills) and shaping their experiences of discrimination and exclusion

• Liminality: The state of being "in between" or on the margins of society, often associated with a lack of clear status or belonging. 

  • Gonzales uses liminality to describe the experience of undocumented immigrants who exist in a social and legal limbo, neither fully accepted nor fully excluded from mainstream society, with uncertain futures

• Early-exiters: Undocumented immigrants who, often due to legal challenges or barriers to integration, decide to leave the United States early, before reaching adulthood or completing their education

• College-goers: Undocumented youth who manage to navigate the barriers to higher education despite their legal status. 

  • Gonzales explores the experiences of these individuals, particularly those who are able to attend college but face the challenges of limited financial aid, uncertainty about their future, and the threat of deportation, making their educational experience different from that of their documented peers