Chapter 1: 

(the foundations) 

Uncritical acceptance The tendency to believe claims because they seem true or because it would be nice if they were true.

Confirmation bias The tendency to remember or notice information that fits one’s expectations, while forgetting or ignoring discrepancies.

Superstition Unfounded belief held without evidence or in spite of falsifying evidence.

Pseudoscience Unfounded belief system that seems to be based on science.

Science An objective approach to answering questions that relies on careful observations and experiments.

Psychologist A person highly trained in the methods, factual knowledge, and theories of psychology.

Animal model In research, an animal whose behavior is studied to derive principles that may apply to human behavior.

Clinical psychologist A psychologist who specializes in the

of psychological and behavioral disturbances or who does

research on such disturbances.

Counseling psychologist A psychologist who specializes in the treatment of milder emotional and behavioral disturbances.

Psychiatrist A medical doctor with additional training in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders.

Psychoanalyst A mental health professional (usually a medical doctor) trained to practice psychoanalysis.

Counselor A mental health professional who specializes in helping people with problems that do not involve serious mental disorders.

Scientific observation An empirical investigation structured to answer questions about the world in a systematic and intersubjective fashion (i.e., observations can be reliably confirmed by multiple observers).

Stimulus Any physical energy that an organism senses.

Introspection Personal observation of your own thoughts,

feelings, and behavior.

Structuralism Study of sensations and personal experience

analyzed as basic elements.

Imageless thought An old term describing the inability of introspectionists to become subjectively aware of some mental processes; an early term describing the cognitive unconscious.

Cognitive unconscious The part of the mind of which we are subjectively unaware and that is not open to introspection.

Gestalt psychology Study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis into parts.

Functionalism School of psychology that considers behaviors in terms of active adaptations.

Natural selection Darwin’s theory that evolution favors those plants and animals best suited to their living conditions.

Behaviorism School of thought in psychology that emphasizes study of observable actions over study of the mind.

Response Any muscular action, glandular activity, or other identifiable aspect of behavior.

Radical behaviorism A behaviorist approach that rejects both introspection and any study of mental events, such as thinking, as inappropriate topics for scientific psychology.

Dynamic unconscious In Freudian theory, the parts of the mind that are beyond awareness, especially conflicts, impulses, and desires not directly known to a person.

Psychoanalysis Freudian approach to psychotherapy emphasizing the exploration of the unconscious using free association, dream interpretation, resistances, and transference to uncover unconscious conflicts.

Neo-Freudians Psychologists who accept the broad features of Freud’s theory but have revised the theory to include the role of cultural and social factors while still accepting some of its basic concepts.

Psychodynamic theory Any theory of behavior that emphasizes

internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces.

Cognitive psychology The study of information processing,

thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.

Operational definition Defining a scientific concept by

stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. For

example, hunger might be defined as the number of hours of food

deprivation.

Determinism The idea that all behavior has prior causes that

would completely explain one’s choices and actions if all such causes

were known.

Free will The ability to freely make choices that are not controlled

by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces; the idea that human

beings are capable of making choices or decisions themselves.

Humanistic psychology Study of people as inherently good and

motivated to learn and improve.

Self-actualization The process of fully developing personal

Potentials.

Psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Biopsychosocial model An approach acknowledging that

biological, psychological, and social factors interact to influence

human behavior and mental processes.

Biological perspective The attempt to explain behavior in terms

of underlying biological principles.

Evolutionary psychology Approach that emphasizes inherited,

adaptive aspects of behavior and mental processes.

Neuroscience The broader field of biopsychologists and others

who study the brain and nervous system, such as biologists and

biochemists.

Psychological perspective The traditional view that behavior

is shaped by psychological processes occurring at the level of the

individual.

Social perspective The focus on the importance of social

contexts in influencing the behavior of individuals.

Social norms Rules that define acceptable and expected behavior

for members of a group.

Gender bias in research A tendency for females and female-

related issues to be underrepresented in research, whether

psychological or otherwise.

Cultural relativity The idea that behavior must be judged relative

to the values of the culture in which it occurs.

Description In scientific research, the process of naming and

classifying.

Understanding In psychology, being able to state the causes of a

behavior.

Prediction In psychology, an ability to accurately forecast behavior.

Control In psychology, altering conditions that influence behavior.

Critical thinking In psychology, a type of reflection involving the

support of beliefs through scientific explanation and observation.

Falsification The deliberate attempt to uncover how a

commonsense belief or scientific theory might be false.

Scientific method A form of critical thinking based on careful

measurement, controlled observation, and repeatable results.

Hypothesis Predicted outcome of an experiment, or an educated

guess about the relationship between variables.

Theory Comprehensive explanation of observable events.

Self-report data Information that is provided by participants

about their own thoughts, emotions, or behaviors, typically on a

questionnaire or during an interview.

Survey Descriptive research method in which participants are

asked the same questions.

Population The entire group of people from which a sample is drawn.

Sample Subset of a population being studied.

Representative sample A small, randomly selected part of a

larger population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole

population.

Biased sample A subpart of a larger population that does not

accurately reflect characteristics of the whole population.

Social desirability Deliberate tendency to provide polite, socially

acceptable responses.

Observational data Data that come from watching participants

and recording their behavior.

Naturalistic observation Observing behavior as it unfolds in

natural settings.

Structured observation Observing behavior in situations that

have been set up by the researcher.

Observer effect Changes in an organism’s behavior brought

about by an awareness of being observed.

Observer bias The tendency of an observer to distort observations

or perceptions to match his or her expectations.

Physiological data Data that come from participants’

physiological processes (including measures of the brain and heart,

muscles, and the production of hormones).

Variable Factor or characteristic manipulated or measured in

research.

Experiment A study in which the investigator manipulates at least

one variable while measuring at least one other variable.

Independent variable Variable manipulated by the researcher in

an experiment.

Dependent variable The element of an experiment that

measures any effect of the manipulation.

Extraneous variable A condition or factor that may change and

is excluded from influencing the outcome of an experiment.

Experimental subjects Humans (also referred to as participants)

or animals whose behavior is investigated in an experiment.

Participants Humans whose behavior is investigated in an

experiment.

Experimental group Group that receives the treatment the study is designed to test.

Control group Subjects in an experimental study who do not receive the treatment being investigated.

Random assignment Use of chance to place subjects in experimental and control groups.

Statistically significant Experimental results that would rarely occur by chance alone.

Meta-analysis A statistical technique for combining the results of many studies on the same subject.

Research participant bias Changes in the behavior of study participants caused by the unintended influence of their own expectations.

Placebo effect Changes in behavior due to participants’ expectations that a drug (or other treatment) will have some effect.

Placebo Inactive substance or treatment that is distinguishable from a real, active substance or treatment.

Single-blind study Research in which the subjects do not know which treatment they receive.

Researcher bias Changes in participants’ behavior caused by the unintended influence of a researcher’s actions.

Self-fulfilling prophecy A prediction that prompts people to act in ways that make the prediction come true.

Double-blind study Research in which neither the observer nor the subjects know which subjects received which treatment.

Quasi-experimental study A descriptive study in which researchers wish to compare groups of people, but cannot randomly assign them to groups.

Correlational research Descriptive study that quantifies the degree to which events, measures, or variables are associated.

Correlation The existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables.

Correlation coefficient A statistical index ranging from –1.00 to +1.00 that indicates the direction and degree of correlation.

Causation The act of causing some effect.

Case study (clinical method) In-depth analysis of the behavior of one person or a small number of people.

Chapter 2 

( brain and behavior) 

Central nervous system (CNS) The brain and spinal cord.

Spinal cord A column of nerves that transmits information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system.

Spinal nerves Major nerves that carry sensory and motor messages in and out of the spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) The parts of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.

Neuron A cell in the nervous system that transmits information.

Nerve A bundle of neuron axons.

Cranial nerves Major nerves that leave the brain without passing through the spinal cord.

Somatic nervous system (SNS) A network linking the spinal cord with the body and sense organs.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) The collection of axons that carry information to and from internal organs and glands.

Sympathetic nervous system (sympathetic branch) The division of the autonomic nervous system that coordinates arousal.

Parasympathetic nervous system (parasympathetic

branch) The division of the autonomic nervous system that quiets the body conserves energy.

Dendrites Neuron fibers that receive incoming messages.

Cell body The part of the neuron or other cell that contains the nucleus of the cell.

Axon A fiber that carries information away from the cell body of a neuron.

Axon terminals Bulb-shaped structures at the ends of axons that form synapses with the dendrites and cell bodies of other neurons.

Resting potential The electrical charge of an inactive neuron.

Threshold In neurons, the point at which a nerve impulse is triggered.

Action potential A brief change in a neuron’s electrical charge.

Myelin sheath Insulating material that covers some axons. Ion channels Tiny openings through the axon membrane.

Negative after-potential A drop in electrical charge below the resting potential.

Synapse A microscopic space over which messages pass between two neurons.

Synaptic transmission The chemical process that carries information from one neuron to another.

Neurotransmitter A chemical that moves information from one nervous-system cell to another.

Receptor site An area on the surface of neurons and other cells that is sensitive to neurotransmitters or hormones.

Neuropeptides Brain chemicals, such as enkephalins and endorphins, that regulate the activity of neurons.

Neuroplasticity The capacity of the brain to change in response to experience.

Neurogenesis The production of new brain cells.

Computed tomographic (CT) scan A computer-enhanced X-ray image of the brain or body.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) An imaging technique that results in a three-dimensional image of the brain or body, based on its response to a magnetic field.

Localization of function The research strategy of linking specific structures in the brain to specific psychological or behavioral

Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) Direct electrical stimulation and activation of brain tissue.

Electrode Any device (such as a wire, needle, or metal plate) used to stimulate or destroy nerve tissue electrically or to record its activity.

Ablation In biopsychology, the surgical removal of tissue from the surface of the brain.

Deep lesioning Removal of tissue within the brain by the use of an electrode.

Electroencephalograph (EEG) A device that records electrical activity in the brain.

Positron emission tomography (PET) A high-resolution imaging technique that captures brain activity by attaching radioactive particles to glucose molecules.

Functional MRI (fMRI) An MRI technique that records activity levels in various areas of the brain.

Cerebral cortex The thin, wrinkled outer covering of the brain in which high-level processes take place.

Corticalization An increase in the relative size of the cerebral cortex.

Cerebral hemispheres The left and right sides of the cerebral cortex; interconnected by the corpus callosum.

Lateralization Differences between the two sides of the body, especially differences in the abilities of the brain hemispheres.

Split-brain operation A surgical procedure that involves cutting the corpus callosum.

Handedness A preference for the right or left hand in most activities.

Dominant hemisphere A term usually applied to the side of a a person's brain that produces language.

Lobes of the cerebral cortex Areas on the left and right cortex bordered by major fissures or defined by their functions.

Frontal lobes Areas of the cortex associated with movement, the sense of self, and higher mental functions.

Prefrontal area (prefrontal cortex) The very front of the frontal

lobes; involved in the sense of self, executive functions, and planning.

Executive functions The higher-level mental processes that allow us

to regulate and coordinate our own thought processes.

Association areas (association cortex) All areas of the cerebral cortex that are not primarily sensory or motor in function.

Aphasia A speech disturbance resulting from brain damage.

Broca’s area A language area related to grammar and pronunciation.

Primary motor area (primary motor cortex) A brain area associated with the control of movement.

Mirror neurons Neurons that become active when a motor action is carried

out and when another organism is observed performing the same action.

Motor neuron A cell in the nervous system that transmits commands from the brain to the muscles.

Autism spectrum disorder A lifetime disorder whose primary features are impaired communication and social interaction.

Parietal lobes Areas of the cortex in which body sensations register.

Primary somatosensory area (primary somatosensory

cortex) A receiving area for body sensations.

Temporal lobes Areas of the cortex that include the sites where

hearing registers.

Primary auditory area (primary auditory cortex) The part of the temporal lobe that first receives input from the ears.

Wernicke’s area A temporal lobe brain area related to language comprehension.

Occipital lobes Cortical areas at the back of the brain that play a role in visual processing.

Primary visual area (primary visual cortex) The part of the occipital lobe that first receives input from the eyes.

Visual agnosia An inability to identify seen objects.

Facial agnosia An inability to perceive familiar faces.

Subcortex A term referring to all brain structures below the cerebral cortex.

Hindbrain A primitive part of the brain that comprises the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

Medulla The structure that connects the brain with the spinal cord and controls vital life functions.

Pons An area of the hindbrain that acts as a bridge between the medulla and other structures.

Reticular formation (RF) A collection of cells and fibers in the medulla and pons involved in arousal and attention.

Cerebellum The structure in the hindbrain involved in controlling coordination and balance.

Midbrain A structure that connects the hindbrain with the forebrain.

Forebrain A brain structure, including the limbic system, thalamus,

hypothalamus, and cortex, that governs higher-order mental processes.

Thalamus A brain structure that relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus A small area of the brain that regulates emotional behaviors and basic biological needs.

Limbic system A set of brain structures that play important roles in regulating emotion and memory.

Amygdala A part of the limbic system associated with the rapid processing of emotions; especially fear.

Hippocampus Part of the limbic system associated with storing

memories.

Chapter 4  

(sensation, attention and perception) 

Transducers Devices that convert one kind of energy into another.

Sensation Conversion of energy from the environment into

a pattern of response by the nervous system; also, a sensory

impression.

Psychophysics Study of how the mind interprets the physical

properties of stimuli.

Absolute threshold Minimum amount of physical energy that

can be detected 50 percent of the time.

Difference threshold Minimum difference in physical energy

between two stimuli that can be detected 50 percent of the time.

Sensory adaptation A decrease over time in sensory response to

an unchanging stimulus.

Perceptual features Basic attributes of a stimulus, such as lines,

shapes, edges, or colors.

Feature detector Cells in the cortex that respond to a specific

attribute of an object.

Hue Color of light, as determined by its

wavelength.

Cornea Curved, transparent, protective

layer through which light enters the eye.

Lens Clear structure behind the pupil that

bends light toward the retina.

Accommodation Changes in the shape of

the lens of the eye to enable the seeing of

close and far objects.

Hyperopia Having difficulty focusing on

nearby objects (farsightedness).

Myopia Having difficulty on distant objects (nearsightedness).

Astigmatism Defects in the cornea, lens, or eye that cause some areas of vision to be

out of focus.

Presbyopia Farsightedness caused by aging.

Retina Surface at the back of the eye onto which the lens focuses light rays.

Cones Photoreceptors that are sensitive to color.

Rods Photoreceptors for dim light that produce only black and white sensations.

Visual acuity The sharpness of visual perception.

Blind spot Area in the retina where the optic nerve exits that

contains no photoreceptor cells.

Optic nerve Structure that conveys visual information away from

the retina to the brain.

Fovea Tiny spot in the center of the retina, containing only cones,

where visual acuity is greatest.

Color blindness A total inability to perceive color.

Color weakness An inability to distinguish some colors.

Peripheral (side) vision Vision at the edges of the visual field.

Dark adaptation Increased light sensitivity of the eye under low-

light conditions.

Pupil The black opening inside the iris that allows light to enter

the eye.

Iris Colored structure on the surface of the eye surrounding

the pupil.

Trichromatic theory of color vision A theory of color vision

based on three cone types: red, green, and blue.

Opponent-process theory of color vision Proposition that color vision is based on coding things as red or green, yellow or blue, or black or white.

Pitch How high or low a tone sounds; related to the frequency of a sound wave.

Loudness The volume of a sound; related to the amplitude of a sound wave.

Eardrum Membrane that vibrates in response to sound waves and transmits them inward.

Cochlea Snail-shaped organ in the inner ear that contains sensory receptors for hearing.

Basilar membrane Structure in the cochlea containing hair cells that convert sound waves into action potentials.

Hair cells Receptor cells within the cochlea that transduce vibrations into nerve impulses.

Conductive hearing loss Poor transfer of sounds from the eardrum to the inner ear.

Sensorineural hearing loss Loss of hearing caused by damage to the inner-ear hair cells or auditory nerve.

Noise-induced hearing loss Damage caused by exposing the hair cells to excessively loud sounds.

Frequency theory of hearing Proposition that pitch is decoded from the rate at which hair cells of the basilar membrane are firing.

Place theory of hearing Proposition that higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea.

Olfaction Sense of smell.

Gustation Sense of taste.

Skin senses The senses of touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold. Kinesthetic senses The senses of body movement and positioning.

Vestibular senses Perception of balance, gravity, and acceleration.

Lock-and-key theory of olfaction A theory holding that odors are related to the shapes of chemical molecules.

Taste buds Receptor cells for taste.

Warning system Pain based on large nerve fibers; warns that bodily damage may be occurring.

Reminding system Pain based on small nerve fibers; reminds the brain that the body has been injured.

Gate control theory A theory proposing that pain messages pass through neural “gates” in the spinal cord.

Multimodal integration The process by which the brain combines information coming from multiple senses.

Selective attention Giving priority to a particular incoming sensory message.

Inattentional blindness A failure to notice a stimulus because attention is focused elsewhere.

Change blindness A failure to notice that the background is changing because attention is focused elsewhere.

Mind-wandering The process by which attention is withdrawn from the physical environment to focus on internal events.

Synesthesia a perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation

of one sensory system creates perceptual experiences in another

sensory system.

Perception Selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input.

Illusion A misleading or misconstructed perception.

Hallucination Perception with no basis in reality.

Perceptual construction A mental model of external events.

Bottom-up processing Organizing perceptions by beginning with low-level features.

Top-down processing Perception guided by prior knowledge or expectations.

Figure-ground organization Organizing a perception so that part of a stimulus appears to stand out as an object (figure) against a less prominent background (ground).

Size constancy The principle that the perceived size of an object

remains constant, despite changes in its retinal image.

Brightness constancy The principle that the apparent (or relative) brightness of objects remains the same so long as they are illuminated by the same amount of light.

Müller-Lyer illusion Two equal-length lines tipped with inward or outward pointing Vs appear to be of different lengths.

Depth perception The ability to see three-dimensional (3-D)

space and to judge distances accurately.

Depth cues Features of the environment and messages from the

body that supplies information about distance and space.

Binocular depth cues Perceptual features that impart information

about distance and three-dimensional (3-D) space that require two eyes.

Retinal disparity Difference between the images projected onto each eye.

Stereoscopic vision Perception of space and depth as a result of

each eye receiving different images.

Convergence Degree to which the eyes turn in to focus on a close object.

Monocular depth cues Perceptual features that impart information about distance and three-dimensional (3-D) space that

require just one eye.

Pictorial depth cues Monocular depth cues found in paintings, drawings, and photographs that impart information about space, depth, and distance.

Virtual reality Environment in which sensory stimuli (such as sights and sounds) are provided by computer software to realistically simulate “real world” events

Endocrine system A network of glands that release hormones

into the bloodstream.

Hormones A chemical released by the endocrine glands.

Pituitary gland The master gland of the endocrine system that

controls the action of all other glands.

Growth hormone A hormone, secreted by the pituitary gland,

that promotes body growth.

Oxytocin A hormone, released by the pituitary gland, that plays a broad role in regulating pregnancy, parenthood, sexual activity, social bonding, trust, and even reducing stress reactions.

Pineal gland A gland in the brain that helps regulate body rhythms and sleep cycles.

Melatonin A hormone released by the pineal gland in response to daily cycles of light and dark.

Thyroid gland An endocrine gland that helps regulate the rate of metabolism.

Adrenal glands Endocrine glands that arouse the body, regulate salt balance, adjust the body to stress, and affect sexual functioning.

Epinephrine An adrenal hormone that tends to arouse the body;

epinephrine is associated with fear. (Also known as adrenaline.)

Norepinephrine Both a brain neurotransmitter and an adrenal hormone that tends to arouse the body; norepinephrine is associated with anger. (Also known as noradrenaline.)

Self-regulation The ability to consciously exert self-control.

Chapter 6 

(conditioning and learning) 

Learning Any relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that can be attributed to experience.

Associative learning The formation of simple associations between various stimuli and responses.

Classical conditioning A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli.

Unconditioned stimulus (US) Something that elicits a response without any prior experience.

Unconditioned response (UR) Response to a stimulus that requires no previous experience.

Neutral stimulus (NS) A stimulus that does not evoke a response.

Conditioned stimulus (CS) Neutral stimulus that, through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a learned response.

Conditioned response (CR) Learned reaction elicited by pairing an originally neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction (classical conditioning) Weakening of a learned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery Reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction.

Stimulus generalization Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus discrimination The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.

Conditioned emotional response (CER) An emotional response that has been linked to a previously nonemotional stimulus by classical conditioning.

Operant (instrumental) conditioning Learning based on the positive or negative consequences of responding.

Law of effect Responses that lead to desirable effects are repeated; those that produce undesirable results are not.

Operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box) An apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals.

Reinforcer Any event that reliably increases the probability or frequency of responses it follows.

Positive reinforcement Occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event.

Negative reinforcement Occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event.

Punisher Any event that decreases the probability or frequency of responses that it follows.

Positive punishment (punishment) Any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process of suppressing a response.

Negative punishment (response cost) Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.

Operant extinction The weakening or disappearance of a nonreinforced operant response.

Operant stimulus generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded reinforcement.

Operant stimulus discrimination The tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with nonreward are present.

Shaping Gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern.

Continuous reinforcement A pattern in which a reinforcer

follows every correct response.

Partial reinforcement A pattern in which only a portion of all

responses are reinforced.

Partial reinforcement effect Responses acquired with partial

reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.

Schedules of reinforcement Rules or plans for determining

which responses will be reinforced.

Fixed ratio (FR) schedule An arrangement where a set number

of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example,

a reinforcer is given for every four correct responses.

Variable ratio (VR) schedule An arrangement where a varied

number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For

example, a reinforcer is given after three to seven correct responses;

the actual number changes randomly.

Fixed interval (FI) schedule An arrangement where a reinforcer

is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of

time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made

during the time interval are not reinforced.

Variable interval (VI) schedule An arrangement where a

reinforcer is given for the first correct response made after a varied

amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response.

Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

Primary reinforcers Nonlearned reinforcers; usually those that

satisfy physiological needs.

Secondary reinforcer A learned reinforcer; often one that gains

reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer.

Token reinforcer A tangible secondary reinforcer such as money, gold stars, poker chips, and the like.

Observational learning (modeling) Learning achieved by watching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions.

Model (in learning) A person who serves as an example in observational learning.

Disinhibition The removal of inhibition; results in acting out that normally would be restrained.

Desensitization A reduction in emotional sensitivity to a stimulus.

Cognitive learning Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation.

School psychologists Psychologists who work in schools and design interventions for students who are having difficulties.

Educational psychologists Psychologists who carry out research to better understand how people best learn and how teachers can improve instruction.

Bloom’s taxonomy A system for classifying knowledge and learning.

Growth mindset The belief that intelligence and talents can be developed through hard work and effort.

Fixed mindset The belief that intelligence and talents are inborn and cannot easily be changed.

Direct instruction A method of instruction in which information is presented by lecture or demonstration, and students often learn through rote practice.

Discovery learning Learning based on insight and understanding. 

Feedback Information returned to people about their progress toward a goal.

Behavioral contract A formal agreement stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply.

Premack principle Any high-frequency response can be used to reinforce a low-frequency response.

Self-recording Self-management based on keeping records of response frequencies.

Chapter 7 

(memory) 

Memory Mental system for receiving, encoding, storing,

organizing, altering, and retrieving information.

Encoding (in memory) Converting information into a form to be

retained in memory.

Storage (in memory) Holding information in memory for later use.

Retrieval (in memory) Recovery of stored information.

Sensory memory Fleeting storage system for sensory impressions.

Iconic memory A mental image or visual representation.

Echoic memory A brief continuation of sensory activity in the auditory system after a sound is heard.

Short-term memory (STM) Storage systems used to hold small amounts of information in conscious awareness for about a dozen seconds.

Working memory Another name for short-term memory, especially as it is used for thinking and problem solving.

Information bits Meaningful units of information, such as

numbers, letters, words, or phrases.

Chunking Process of grouping similar or meaningful information together.

Maintenance rehearsal Repeating information over and over to

keep it active in short-term memory.

Rote rehearsal (rote learning) Learning by simple repetition.

Elaborative rehearsal (elaborative encoding) Making memories more meaningful through processing that encodes links between new information and existing memories and knowledge, either at the time of the original encoding or on subsequent retrievals.

Long-term memory (LTM) Unlimited capacity storage system that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.

Network model (of memory) A model of memory that views it as an organized system of linked information.

Retrieval cue Any information that can prompt or trigger the retrieval of particular memories. Retrieval cues usually enhance memory.

Redintegration Process by which memories are reconstructed or expanded by starting with one memory and then following chains of association to other, related memories.

Priming Facilitating the retrieval of an implicit memory by using cues to activate hidden memories.

Explicit memory A recollection that a person is aware of having or is consciously retrieved.

Semantic memory A subpart of declarative memory that records impersonal knowledge about the world.

Episodic memory A subpart of declarative memory that records personal experiences that are linked with specific times and places.

Consolidation Process by which relatively permanent memories are formed in the brain.

Hippocampus Part of the limbic system associated with storing memories.

Flashbulb memory Especially vivid and detailed recollection of an emotional event.

Encoding failure Failure to store sufficient information to form a useful memory.

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state The feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable.

Recall Retrieval of information with a minimum of external cues.

Serial position effect When remembering an ordered list, the tendency to make the most errors with middle items.

Recognition Ability to correctly identify previously learned information.

Relearning Learning again something that was previously learned. Used to measure memory of prior learning

Retrieval failure Failure to access (locate) memories even though they are available (stored in memory).

Amnesia Inability to form or retrieve memories of events due to an injury or trauma.

Retrograde amnesia Inability to retrieve memories of events that occurred before an injury or trauma.

Anterograde amnesia Inability to form or retrieve memories of events that occur after an injury or trauma.

State-dependent learning Memory influenced by one’s physical state at the time of learning and at the time of retrieval. Improved memory occurs when the physical states match.

Interference The tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older memories, and the reverse.

Retroactive interference The tendency for new memories to interfere with the retrieval of old memories.

Proactive interference The tendency for old memories to interfere with the retrieval of newer memories.

Repression Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious.

Suppression A conscious effort to put something out of mind or to keep it from awareness.

Decay theory Proposition that the strength of memories weakens over time, making them harder to retrieve.

Memory traces Physical changes in neurons or brain activity that take place when memories are stored.

Law of Disuse (in memory) Proposition that memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrieved.

False memory A memory that can seem accurate but is not.

Source confusion (in memory) Occurs when the origins of a memory are misremembered.

Cognitive interview Use of various cues and strategies to improve the memory of eyewitnesses.

Spaced practice A practice schedule that alternates study periods with brief rests.

Massed practice A practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption.

Mental images Mental pictures or visual depictions used in memory and thinking.

Mnemonic device A strategy for enhancing memory.

Keyword method As an aid to memory, using a familiar word or image to link two items.

Multimedia principle The idea that people process words and mental images together better than they do words alone.

Chapter 3.1-3.3 

Developmental psychology The study of the normal changes in behavior that occur across the lifespan.

Heredity (“nature”) The transmission of physical and psychological characteristics from parents to offspring through genes.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) A molecular structure that contains coded genetic information.

Chromosomes Rodlike structures in the cell nucleus that house an individual’s genes.

Genes Areas on a strand of DNA that carry hereditary information.

Genetic disorders Problems caused by defects in the genes or by inherited characteristics.

Dominant gene A gene whose influence will be expressed each time that the gene is present.

Recessive gene A gene whose influence will be expressed only when it is paired with a second recessive gene of the same type.

Polygenic characteristics Personal traits or physical properties that are influenced by many genes working in combination.

Environment (“nurture”) The sum of all external conditions affecting development, including especially the effects of learning.

Teratogen A harmful substance that can cause birth defects.

Congenital problems Defects that originate during prenatal development in the womb.

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) A collection of conditions occurring in children whose mothers consumed alcohol during pregnancy.

Sensitive period During development, a period of increased sensitivity to environmental influences. It also is a time during which certain events must take place for normal development to occur.

Deprivation In development, the loss or withholding of normal stimulation, nutrition, comfort, love, and so forth; a condition of absence.

Enrichment In development, deliberately making an environment more stimulating, nutritional, comforting, loving, and so forth.

Epigenetics The study of changes in organisms that are caused by modifications to gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself.

Maturation The physical growth and development of the body, brain, and nervous system.

Puberty Biologically defined period during which a person matures sexually and becomes capable of reproduction.

Adolescence The culturally defined period between childhood and adulthood.

Socioemotional development Area of psychology concerned with changes in emotions and social relationships.

Social smile Smiling elicited by a social stimulus, such as seeing a parent’s face.

Psychosocial dilemma A conflict between personal impulses and the social world.

Affection needs Emotional needs for care, love, and positive relationships with others.

Surrogate mother A substitute mother (in animal research, often an inanimate object or a dummy).

Contact comfort A pleasant and reassuring feeling that human and animal infants get from touching or clinging to something soft and warm, usually their mothers.

Separation anxiety Distress displayed by infants when they are separated from their parents or principal caregivers.

Temperament General pattern of attention, arousal, and mood that is evident from birth.

Attachment Emotional bonding between an infant and its caregivers that results from infants’ feelings of security with the caregiver in times of stress or uncertainty.

Secure attachment A stable and positive emotional bond. Insecure-avoidant attachment An anxious emotional bond marked by a tendency to avoid reunion with a parent or caregiver.

Insecure-ambivalent attachment An anxious emotional bond marked by both a desire to be with a parent or caregiver and some resistance to being reunited.

Parental styles Identifiable patterns of parental caretaking and interaction with children.

Authoritarian parents Parents who enforce rigid rules and demand strict obedience to authority.

Power assertion The use of physical punishment or coercion to enforce child discipline.

Withdrawal of love Withholding affection to enforce child discipline.

Self-esteem Regarding oneself as a worthwhile person; a positive evaluation of oneself.

Permissive parents: Parents who give little guidance, allow too much freedom, or do not require the child to take responsibility.

Authoritative parents Parents who supply firm and consistent guidance combined with love and affection.

Chapter 3 3.4- 3.5 

Emerging adulthood A socially accepted period of extended adolescence that is now quite common in Western and Westernized societies.

Biological predisposition The presumed hereditary readiness of humans to learn certain skills, such as how to use language or a readiness to behave in particular ways.

Signals In early language development, behaviors, such as touching, vocalizing, gazing, or smiling, that allow nonverbal interaction and turn-taking between parent and child.

Motherese (parentese) A pattern of speech used when talking to infants, marked by a higher-pitched voice; short, simple sentences; repetition; slower speech; and exaggerated voice inflections.

Schema A mental structure composed of an organized learned body of knowledge or skills about a particular topic, according to Piaget.

Assimilation The application of an established schema to new objects or problems, according to Piaget.

Accommodation (learning) Modification of an established schema to fit a new object or problem, according to Piaget.

Sensorimotor stage Piaget’s initial stage of development, when the infant’s mental activity is only sensory perception and motor skills.

Object permanence Recognizing that physical things continue to exist, even when they are no longer visible.

Preoperational stage Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, characterized by the use of symbols and illogical thought.

Transformation (Piagetian) The mental ability to change the shape or form of a substance (such as clay or water) and to perceive that its volume remains the same.

Egocentrism The belief that everyone sees exactly what you see in the physical world, or that they think about the world in the same way that you do.

Theory of mind The understanding that people have mental states, such as thoughts, beliefs, and intentions and that other people’s mental states can be different from one’s own.

Concrete operational stage Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, characterized by logical thought.

Conservation Piaget’s term for the awareness that physical quantities stay constant despite changes in shape or appearance.

Formal operational stage Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to engage in thinking that includes abstract, theoretical, and hypothetical ideas.

Zone of proximal development A term referring to the range of tasks that a child cannot yet master alone, but that she or he can accomplish with the guidance of a more capable partner.

Scaffolding The process of adjusting instruction so that it is responsive to a beginner’s behavior and supports the beginner’s efforts to understand a problem or gain a mental skill.

Moral development The development of values that, along with

appropriate emotions and cognitions, guide responsible behavior.

Preconventional moral reasoning Moral thinking based on the consequences of one’s choices or actions (punishment, reward, or an exchange of favors).

Conventional moral reasoning Moral thinking based on a desire to please others or to follow accepted rules and values.

Postconventional moral reasoning Moral thinking based on carefully examined and self-chosen moral principles.

Chapter 8 

(cognition, language and creativity)

Cognition Process of thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge.

Experiential processing Thought that is passive, effortless, and automatic.

Reflective processing Thought that is active, effortful, and controlled.

Mental images Mental picture or visual depiction used in memory

and thinking.

Concept Mental category for classifying things based on common features or properties.

Prototype An ideal model used as a prime example of a particular concept.

Language Words or symbols, and rules for combining them, that

are used for thinking and communication.

Phonemes Basic speech sounds of a language.

Morphemes Smallest meaningful units in a language, such as

syllables or words.

Grammar A set of rules for combining language units into

meaningful speech or writing.

Syntax Rules for ordering words when forming sentences.

Transformation rules Rules by which a simple declarative sentence may be changed to other voices or forms (past tense, passive voice, and so forth).

Semantics The study of meanings in words and language.

Denotative meaning The exact, dictionary definition of a word or concept; its objective meaning.

Connotative meaning The subjective, personal, or emotional meaning of a word or concept.

Linguistic relativity hypothesis The idea that the words we use not only reflect our thoughts but can shape them as well.

Bilingualism The ability to speak two languages.

Algorithmic solution A problem solution achieved by following a

series of step-by-step rules.

Logical thought Drawing conclusions on the basis of formal

principles of reasoning.

Inductive thought Thinking in which a general rule or principle is gathered from a series of specific examples; for instance, inferring the laws of gravity by observing many falling objects.

Deductive thought Thought that applies a general set of rules to specific situations; for example, using the laws of gravity to predict the behavior of a single falling object.

Understanding (in problem solving) A deeper comprehension of the nature of a problem.

General solution A solution that correctly states the requirements

for success, but not in enough detail for further action.

Functional solution A detailed, practical, and workable solution.

Heuristic Shortcut or rule of thumb for finding a solution to a problem.

Random search strategy Trying possible solutions to a problem in a more or less random order.

Insight A sudden mental reorganization of a problem that makes

the solution obvious.

Fixation (in problem solving) The tendency to repeat wrong

solutions or faulty responses, especially as a result of becoming blind

to alternatives.

Functional fixedness Tendency to perceive an item only in terms

of its most common use.

Intuition Quick, impulsive thought that does not use formal logic

or clear reasoning.

behavioral economics a branch of economics that applies psychology to the study of economic decision-making

Framing In thought, the terms in which a problem is stated or the way that it is structured.

Availability heuristic Mental shortcut that relies on how quickly examples come to mind when evaluating a topic or making a decision.

Representativeness heuristic Mental shortcut of judging if something belongs in a given class based on similarity to other members.

Base rate The basic rate at which an event occurs over time; the basic probability of an event.

Choice overload Difficulty making a decision in the face of many alternatives.

Convergent thinking Thinking directed toward discovery of a single established correct answer; conventional thinking.

Creativity Ability to combine mental elements in new and useful ways.

Divergent thinking Thinking that produces many ideas or alternatives; a major element in original or creative thought.

Fluency In tests of creativity, fluency refers to the total number of solutions produced.

Flexibility In tests of creativity, flexibility is indicated by how many different types of solutions are produced.

Originality In tests of creativity, originality refers to how novel or unusual solutions are.

Mental set A predisposition to perceive or respond in a particular way.

Brainstorming Method of creative thinking that separates the production and evaluation of ideas.

Cross-stimulation effect In group problem solving, the tendency of one person’s ideas to trigger ideas from others.