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Foundations of American Democracy

Ideals of Democracy

• Natural Rights: Rights inherent to all individuals, including life, liberty, and property (Locke); government exists to protect these.

• Social Contract: Government derives power from the consent of the governed.

• Popular Sovereignty: The principle that the authority of a government is created and sustained by the consent of its people.

• Limited Government: Government power is restricted by law, usually through a constitution.

• Republicanism:  A system where people elect representatives to make decisions.

Limited Government is Supported By:

• Separation of Powers: The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch from exercising the core functions of another.

• Checks and Balances: A system that ensures that no branch of government becomes too powerful by providing each branch with the means to check the others.

• Federalism: Power is divided between national and state governments.

• Republicanism

Types of Representative Democracies

• Participatory: A model of democracy in which citizens have the power to decide directly on policy and politicians are responsible for implementing those policy decisions.

• Pluralist: Political system where multiple groups compete to influence policy and administration. (Multiple interest groups influence policy.)

• Pure: Theoretical portrayal of democracy with direct participation by all citizens.

• Elitist: A model where a small number of elites hold a disproportionate amount of power.

Contemporary Examples of Different Democracies:

1.2 Federalist 10 (James Madison)

• Federalist Ideology: Belief in a strong central government and the protection of minority rights.

• Factions: Groups of individuals, such as interest groups or political parties, that share similar interests and seek to influence government policy.

• Large Republic Argument: The idea that a large republic can better guard against the dangers of factionalism by diluting their power.

• Republicanism: Reiterates the philosophy of a government based on the consent of the governed, through elected representatives.

• Elected Representatives / Filter: Mechanism through which the populace elects individuals to represent their interests.

Brutus 1

• Anti-Federalist Ideology: Advocated for states' rights and a more decentralized form of government.

• Anti-Federalist Concerns: Fears regarding a powerful central government that could infringe on individual liberties.

• State Power: Emphasis on the importance and sovereignty of individual states.

• Small Republic Argument: Belief that a smaller republic is more conducive to representative democracy. (personal freedoms)

1.3 Articles of Confederation

• Lack of centralized military authority

• No executive/judicial branch

• No national court system

• No power to regulate interstate commerce

• No ability to coin money

• No taxing authority/No national currency or taxing authority.

• Importance of Shays' Rebellion: Highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and the need for a stronger central government.

1.4 Ratification of the US Constitution

Compromises:

• Great (Connecticut) Compromise: An agreement for a bicameral legislature that formed the basis of Congress.

• Bicameralism: The practice of having two legislative or parliamentary chambers.

• Electoral College: The body that elects the President of the United States.

• ⅗ Compromise: Agreement that counted enslaved people as three-fifths of a person for taxation and representation.

• Importation of Slaves Ban: Prohibition of the slave trade after a certain date, a compromise regarding slavery.

• Adding a Bill of Rights: Included to address Anti-Federalist concerns and to ensure the protection of individual liberties.

• Amendment Process: The method by which changes can be made to the Constitution.

1.5 Principles of American Government

• Separation of Powers: Dividing government into legislative, executive, and judicial.

• Federalist 51: Argues for checks and balances within the government and the need for each branch to be independent.

• “Double Security”: The idea that the division of power between state and national governments provides additional protection against tyranny.

• Federalism: A political system where power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units.

• Checks and Balances: Each branch of government has some measure of influence over the other branches and may choose to block procedures of the other branches.

• Importance of checks and balances: Ensures that power is not concentrated in one branch, thereby holding public officials accountable for abuses of power.

• Judicial Review: The power of courts to assess whether a law is in compliance with the Constitution.

1.6 Federalist No. 51

Federalism

• Exclusive Powers: Powers reserved exclusively for one level of government (e.g. federal, state, (e.g., foreign policy, military)).

• Concurrent Powers: Powers shared by both federal and state governments. (taxation)

• Reserved Powers (10th Amendment): Powers not granted to the federal government nor prohibited to the states are reserved for the states.

Types of Federalism:

• Layer Cake/Dual Federalism: Each layer of government is separate from each other and has its own powers.

• Marble Cake/Cooperative Federalism: All levels of government interact cooperatively and collectively to solve common problems.

• Block Grants: Grants from the federal government that local authorities can allocate to a wide range of services. (Broad-purpose)

• Categorical Grant: Federal funds provided for a specific purpose and subject to strict regulations.

• Unfunded Mandate: When the federal government requires states to perform certain actions without providing the funding required for those actions.

1.7 Constitutional Interpretations of Federalism

• Due Process/Equal Protection Clause: Constitutional provisions that guarantee individuals fair treatment through the normal judicial system and equal protection under the law.

• Commerce Clause (US v. Lopez): Gives Congress the power to regulate trade among the states.

• Necessary and Proper Clause: Grants Congress the power to pass all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its duties.

• Enumerated Powers: Powers specifically listed in the Constitution as belonging to the federal government.

• Implied Powers: Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are inferred from the enumerated powers.

• Supremacy Clause: Establishes that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land.

1.8

• McCulloch v. Maryland - Necessary and Proper Clause: Implied powers exist. Supremacy Clause: National laws overrule state laws

Commerce Clause: Congress can regulate commerce (limited in US v. Lopez).

Federalism in Action

• Federalism allows people to influence policy at local, state, and national levels.

LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

Congress: The Senate and House of Representatives.

• Bicameralism / CT Compromise: The structure of Congress as two separate chambers.

• Senate:

  • Older age requirement (30 years old).

  • 6-year terms, with ⅓ up for election every 2 years.

  • Represents states.

  • Unlimited debate (Filibuster).

• House of Representatives:

  • Younger age requirement (25 years old).

  • 2-year terms to reflect public opinion shifts.

  • Represents the people.

  • More formal debate (Rules Committee controls debate time).

Enumerated Powers of Congress:

• Fiscal Powers: Passing federal budget, taxing, borrowing, coining money.

• Military Powers: Declaring war, funding military.

• Commerce Powers: Regulating interstate commerce.

• Judicial Powers: Creating federal courts.

• Checks on the Executive: Oversight, Advice & Consent on appointments.

2.1 Structures, Powers, Functions of Congress

Legislative Process

• Role of Committees:

  • Bills start in committees before reaching the floor.

  • Majority party controls committees.

• House Process:

  • Rules Committee: Sets debate rules.

  • Discharge Petition: Forces a bill out of committee.

• Senate Process:

  • Unanimous Consent: Quick passage agreement.

  • Holds: Delay tactics.

  • Filibuster: Endless debate to block bills (delay or prevent a vote.)

  • Cloture (⅗ vote): Ends filibusters.

• Conference Committee: Resolves differences between House & Senate versions of a bill.

• Presidential Options: Sign, veto, pocket veto ( allow to become law after 10 days.)

Budget

• Mandatory Spending: Obligatory expenditures (Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid.)

• Discretionary Spending: Optional expenditures ( Military, education, infrastructure.)

• Increasing mandatory spending will lead to less funding for discretionary matters.

• Pork Barrel Legislation: Funds for localized projects.

• Logrolling: Exchange of political favors for mutual benefit.

Congressional Behavior

• Descriptive Representation: Congress reflects demographics of constituents.

• Divided Government: When different parties control different branches. (congress v. presidency) 

• Gridlock: Inability to pass legislation due to partisan conflict.

• Partisanship: Voting based solely on party affiliation.

• Polarization: Increased ideological distance between parties.

• Gerrymandering: Drawing district boundaries for political advantage.

  • Baker v. Carr: Supreme Court can review redistricting; districts must be equal in population.

  • Shaw v. Reno: Racial gerrymandering is unconstitutional.

Models of Voting

• Trustee: Acts in the best interest of constituents, even if it goes against their immediate wishes.

• Delegate: Votes according to the wishes of constituents.

• Politico: Balances both trustee and delegate models.

EXECUTIVE BRANCH

Roles and Powers of the President

• Formal Powers: Explicitly stated in the Constitution.

  • Vetoes: Can be overridden by ⅔ of Congress.

  • Pocket Vetoes: Indirect veto by not signing a bill.

  • Commander-in-Chief: Oversees the military.

  • Negotiating Treaties: Requires Senate approval.

  • Appointment Powers: Nominates individuals for federal positions (Cabinet, ambassadors, federal judges.)

• Informal Powers: Not explicitly stated in the Constitution.

  • Executive Agreements: International agreements not requiring Senate approval. (Like treaties)

  • Executive Orders: Directives issued by the President. (Bypass Congress, have the force of law.)

  • Bargaining and Persuasion: Engaging with Congress to pass legislation.

  • Signing Statements: Comments on how laws will be enforced.

2.4 Checks on the Presidency

• Senate Confirmation: Required for Cabinet members, ambassadors, and federal judges.

• Judicial Appointments: President’s longest-lasting impact.

• Congressional Conflict: If Congress blocks policies, the president may issue executive orders.

2.5 Expansion of Presidential Power  (Hamilton)

• Federalist No. 70: 

• Supports a single, strong executive for efficiency.

• “Energetic Executive”: President must be decisive.

• 22nd Amendment: Limits presidential terms. (2 terms)

• Debate over the expansion and limitation of presidential powers.

Presidential Communication

• Bully Pulpit: The President uses their position to advocate for policies.

• State of the Union Address: An annual speech to outline the administration's agenda.

• Modern Technology/Social Media: Enhances communication with the public.

THE BUREAUCRACY

Composition of the Bureaucracy

• Departments: Cabinet-level (e.g., Homeland Security, Education).

• Agencies: Specialized tasks (e.g., FDA, EPA).

• Commissions: Regulate industries (e.g., SEC, FEC).

• Government Corporations: Provide services (e.g., USPS, AMTRAK).

Bureaucratic Powers:

• Writing/Enforcing Regulations: Enforce laws.

• Issuing Fines: Penalize violators.

• Testifying Before Congress: Provides expertise.

• Forming Iron Triangles: Relationships between agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees.

• Creation of Issue Networks: Broader coalitions that form around specific policy issues.

Civil Service / Merit-Based System

• Emphasizes:

  • Professionalism

  • Specialization

  • Neutrality

• Replacement of the political patronage/spoils system.

2.12 Discretionary and Rulemaking Authority

• Congress grants bureaucracies the power to create rules.

• Bureaucracies can decide how to enforce regulations.

2.13 Holding the Bureaucracy Accountable

• Congressional Oversight is achieved through:

  • Monitoring and reviewing bureaucratic agencies.

  • Investigations/Committee Hearings: Scrutinizing agency actions.

  • Power of the Purse: (Cut funds) Congress can withhold funds to influence agency behavior.

• Presidential ideology can shape how agencies pursue administration goals.

• Compliance Monitoring: Ensures agencies follow regulations.

JUDICIAL BRANCH

Characteristics of the Judicial Branch

• Federalist No. 78: Discusses the judiciary's role in safeguarding rights.

• Lifetime Appointments: Ensures independence from political pressures.

• “The Least Dangerous Branch”: A term emphasizing its limited power.

• Independence of the Judiciary: Essential for fair legal proceedings.

• Judicial Review: The power to overturn unconstitutional laws.

• Elitism: Perception of the court as a distinguished institution.

• Reliance on Executive Branch to Enforce Decisions: Challenges of enforcement.

  • Marbury v. Madison: Established judicial review.

  • Article III: Outlines the structure of the judiciary.

  • Role of Congress in Establishing Courts: Congress has the power to create lower courts.

The Role of the Judicial Branch

• Stare Decisis: Adhering to precedent in legal decisions.

• Ideological Changes: Shifts in the Court can lead to new interpretations of law.

2.9 The Court in Action

• Lifetime Tenure: Allows justices to operate independently of majority opinion.

• Ability to Issue Controversial Opinions: Justices can rule based on judicial interpretation rather than public pressure.

• Amicus Briefs: Documents submitted by interested parties to influence court decisions.

2.10 Checks on the Judicial Branch

• Congressional Legislation: Can alter the scope of judicial decisions.

• Amendments: Can override judicial interpretations.

• Judicial Appointments/Confirmations: Influence court ideology.

• Presidential Implementation: Requires cooperation to enforce decisions.

• Limiting Types of Cases SCOTUS Can Hear: Congress can limit jurisdiction in specific areas.

Theories of Judicial Action

• Judicial Activism: Belief that courts should assert rights and promote social change.

• Judicial Restraint: Preference for courts to defer to the elected branches.

Policy and the Branches

• Stakeholders: Citizens, interest groups, media influence policy.

• Multiple Access Points: Each branch plays a role in shaping policy.

Political Participation - Vocabulary & Key Concepts

Voting Rights and Models of Voting Behavior

• 14th Amendment:  Grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guarantees equal protection under the law and due process for all citizens.

• 15th Amendment: Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race.

• 17th Amendment: Establishes direct election of senators by popular vote.

• 19th Amendment: Grants women the right to vote.

• 24th Amendment: Prohibits poll taxes in federal elections.

• 26th Amendment: Lowers the voting age to 18.

Models of Voting

• Rational Choice Voting: Voting based on personal benefits received from political outcomes.

• Retrospective Voting: Voting based on the past performance of a candidate or party.

• Prospective Voting: Voting based on expected future benefits from a candidate or policy.

• Straight Ticket Voting: Voting for all candidates from one political party.

5.1 Voter Turnout

• Structural Barriers: Laws or policies that make voting harder, such as strict voter ID laws, limited polling hours, and reduced access to absentee ballots.

• Political Efficacy: The belief that one's participation in politics makes a difference.

• Demographics: Characteristics of voters (age, race, income) that influence turnout.

• State-Controlled Elections: Variables such as voting hours, ID requirements, and funding for polling locations.

• Voter Registration Laws: Rules governing how individuals can register to vote.

• Election Type: Differences in turnout in presidential versus mid-term elections.

• Factors Influencing Candidate Choice: Includes party identification, candidate characteristics, political issues, religious beliefs, age, gender, race, and ethnicity.

5.2 Political Parties

• Linkage Institution: An organization or process that connects citizens to the government, such as political parties, elections, and the media.

• Functions/Impacts on Electorate:

  • Mobilization & Education of Voters – Political parties encourage and educate voters about policies, candidates, and voting processes.
    
    

  • Party Platforms – A formal set of political goals and policies supported by a political party.
    
    

  • Candidate Recruitment – Political parties seek candidates to run for office under their party’s platform.
    
    

  • Campaign Management – Political parties help candidates with fundraising, media strategies, and organizing campaigns.
    
    

  • Party Leadership in Congress – The majority party controls leadership positions, such as the Speaker of the House and committee chairs.

How Political Parties Change

• Candidate-Centered Campaigns: Campaigns that focus more on the personality and image of the candidate rather than party affiliation.

• Reduction of Power: Decline in political party power over nominating candidates (now more public influence).

• Appeal to Different Demographic Coalitions: Targeting specific groups within the electorate.

• Critical Elections: Elections that signify major shifts in party alignment.

• Changes in Communication and Data Management Technology: Impact how parties campaign and engage voters. (increasingly rely on social media, polling, and big data analytics.)

5.3, 5.4 Third Parties

• Structural Barriers to Success: The winner-take-all system in most U.S. elections makes it difficult for third parties to win representation.

• Incorporation of Third Party Agendas: Major parties often adopt third-party issues to gain their voters.

5.5 Interest Groups Influencing Policymaking

• Broad vs. Narrow Groups: Some interest groups (like the NRA) represent broad national issues, while others (like labor unions) focus on specific causes.

• Education of Voters: Activities to inform constituents about issues or candidates.

• Lobbying: Direct interaction with policymakers to influence legislation.

• Draft Legislation: Interest groups help write bills that they later push legislators to pass.

• Mobilizing Membership: Interest groups encourage their members to vote, protest, or donate.

• Amicus Briefs: "Friend of the court" briefs filed by interest groups to influence Supreme Court decisions.

• Inclusion in Iron Triangles: Collaboration between interest groups, policymakers, and bureaucratic agencies.

• Inequality of Resources: Variations in power among competing interest groups due to resources.

• Membership Size and Financial Backing:  Larger groups with more funding have more political power.

• Free Riders / Selective Benefits: People benefit from an interest group’s success without actively contributing

• Social & Protest Movements: Collective actions by groups seeking social change.

5.6, 5.7 Electing a President

• Incumbency Advantage: The current officeholder usually has a higher chance of reelection due to name recognition, fundraising advantages, and experience.

• Open/Closed Primaries: Open primaries allow any registered voter to participate, while closed primaries are limited to party members.

• Caucuses: Party members meet in local gatherings to discuss and vote on candidates.

• Party Conventions: Events to formally nominate presidential candidates.

• General Election: The nationwide election in November where voters select the president.

• Electoral College: A body of electors who formally elect the president based on state vote outcomes.

• Winner-Take-All System: An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes gets all electoral votes.

• Proportional System: Used in Maine and Nebraska, where electoral votes are split based on the percentage of the popular vote.

5.8 Modern Campaigns

• Professional Consultants: Use of experts to plan and conduct campaigns.

• Rising Costs: Campaigns require massive amounts of funding, leading to increased reliance on donors.

• Longer Election Cycles: The lengthening duration of electoral campaigns.

• Reliance on Social Media: Use of social media platforms for campaigning and fundraising.

5.9, 5.10 Campaign Finance

• Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act: Legislation aimed at reducing the influence of money in politics.

  • Effort to Ban Soft Money: (unlimited donations to political parties)  Prohibits unregulated contributions to parties.

  • Stand by Your Ad Provision: Requires candidates to take responsibility for their ads. (“I approve this message”).

• Citizens United v. FEC: A Supreme Court case that ruled corporations and unions can spend unlimited money in elections.

• Corporate Personhood: Concept that corporations have similar legal rights as individuals.

  • Money = Speech: Supreme Court ruling that political spending is protected under the First Amendment.

  • Political Spending: Protection of political contributions by corporations, associations, and labor unions.

• SuperPACs: Organizations that can raise and spend unlimited funds to advocate for or against candidates (cannot coordinate with them.)

• PACs: Political Action Committees that raise and donate money directly to candidates.

The Media

• Agenda Setting: The media influences what political issues are considered important.

• Investigative Journalism: In-depth reporting that investigates and exposes issues or scandals.

• Horse-Race Journalism: Focus on who is winning or losing in politics rather than policy issues.

• Political Commentary: Opinion-based analysis of political events.

• Media Bias: The tendency of the media to favor one political perspective. influence audience perception.

• Concern over Reliability of News: Issues with fake news, misinformation, and selective reporting.

• Increased Media Choices: The variety of media options available to the public today.

• Ideologically Oriented Programming: Media that caters to specific political views.

• Consumer-Driven Media: News organizations shape content based on what audiences want to hear.