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Key Terms & Definitions

1. Chief Justice John Marshall
   Fourth Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1801-1835). His decisions, including Marbury v. Madison, established the principle of judicial review and significantly increased the power of the federal government.

2. Major Court Decisions (Marshall Court)

   • Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review, empowering the judiciary to declare laws unconstitutional.

   • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Confirmed the implied powers of Congress and upheld the creation of a national bank.

   • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Expanded federal control over interstate commerce by ruling that only Congress can regulate interstate trade, not states.

3. Implied Powers
   Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but inferred through the Necessary and Proper Clause. Marshall’s rulings in McCulloch v. Maryland and other cases expanded federal authority through implied powers.

4. Amendment Process
   The process by which changes can be made to the Constitution. An amendment can be proposed by two-thirds of both houses of Congress or by a national convention, and must be ratified by three-fourths of state legislatures or conventions.

5. Constitution Adopted to Change
   The framers designed the Constitution to be flexible, allowing for amendments to meet the needs of a changing nation. This adaptability was seen in the later adoption of the Bill of Rights and subsequent amendments.

6. Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
   Laws passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress aimed at curbing dissent during the Quasi-War with France. They made it harder for immigrants to become citizens and criminalized anti-government speech, leading to widespread criticism as a violation of free speech.

7. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798-1799)
   Political statements authored by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts. They argued that states had the right to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, introducing the concept of "nullification."

8. Thomas Jefferson & Election of 1800
   Jefferson's victory over John Adams marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history. Jefferson’s principles included strict interpretation of the Constitution, limited government, and agrarian ideals.

9. Louisiana Purchase (1803)
   The acquisition of the Louisiana Territory from France under President Jefferson. While Jefferson was a strict constitutionalist, the purchase contradicted his principles, as the Constitution did not explicitly grant the president the power to acquire land.

10. Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806)
    The journey led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the newly acquired western territories. It provided valuable geographic and scientific information, expanded U.S. claims to the Pacific Northwest, and helped with Native American relations.

11. Revolution of 1800
    The election of Thomas Jefferson, which marked the peaceful transfer of power from one political party (Federalists) to another (Democratic-Republicans). It demonstrated that the American political system could survive intense political rivalry.

12. Embargo Act (1807)
    A law passed by Jefferson that prohibited American ships from trading with foreign nations, aimed at pressuring Britain and France to respect U.S. neutrality. It severely hurt the U.S. economy and was unpopular, leading to its repeal in 1809.

13. Hartford Convention (1814-1815)
    A meeting of New England Federalists during the War of 1812. It discussed grievances against the federal government and proposed constitutional amendments, but its timing and discontent contributed to the party’s decline after the war.

14. Tecumseh
    A Shawnee leader who attempted to unite Native American tribes to resist American expansion. His efforts were crushed at the Battle of Tippecanoe (1811) and he was killed during the War of 1812.

15. Westward Expansion
    The movement of American settlers westward, particularly after the Louisiana Purchase, which increased tensions with Native Americans, led to the spread of slavery, and shaped the nation’s growth.

16. Market Revolution
    The rapid expansion of the U.S. economy in the early 19th century, driven by innovations in transportation (railroads, canals) and communication (telegraph), as well as new business practices and technologies like the cotton gin.

17. Lowell System
    A labor system used in early American factories, particularly in Lowell, Massachusetts. It employed young women (often referred to as "Lowell Girls") to work in textile mills, which were integral to the Industrial Revolution.

18. Missouri Compromise (1820)
    An agreement that admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, maintaining the balance of power in Congress. It also prohibited slavery in territories north of the 36°30’ latitude line, temporarily easing sectional tensions.

19. Corrupt Bargain (1824)
    Refers to the election of 1824, in which Andrew Jackson won the popular vote but lost in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams, despite Jackson having more electoral votes. Jackson’s supporters claimed that Adams and Henry Clay made a corrupt deal to secure Adams’ victory.

20. Creek Wars (1813-1814)
    A series of conflicts between the Creek Nation and U.S. forces during the War of 1812. The U.S. victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend led to the Creek’s cession of vast lands in Georgia and Alabama.

21. Election of 1824
    An election in which Andrew Jackson won the popular vote but lost in the House of Representatives after a "corrupt bargain" between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay. This led to the rise of Jacksonian democracy.

22. Nullification Crisis
    A confrontation between South Carolina and the federal government in the early 1830s. South Carolina, led by John C. Calhoun, declared federal tariffs unconstitutional and threatened to secede, challenging the authority of the federal government.

23. Rush-Bagot Pact (1817)
    An agreement between the U.S. and Britain that limited naval forces on the Great Lakes, helping to reduce tensions between the two nations after the War of 1812.

24. Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)
    A treaty between the U.S. and Spain in which Spain ceded Florida to the United States and established a boundary between U.S. territories and Spanish claims in North America.

25. Era of Good Feelings (1815-1825)
    A period of political harmony following the War of 1812, marked by the dominance of the Democratic-Republican Party. However, underlying issues like slavery and sectionalism suggest the “good feelings” were not entirely genuine.

26. Monroe Doctrine (1823)
    A U.S. foreign policy declaration that opposed European colonization and intervention in the Americas, asserting that any such interference would be seen as an act of aggression against the U.S.

27. Bank War
    Andrew Jackson’s campaign to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States, which he believed was too powerful and corrupt. Jackson vetoed its recharter in 1832, leading to the bank’s eventual dissolution.

28. Tariff of Abominations (1828)
    A protective tariff designed to protect American industries, but it hurt Southern states by raising the cost of imported goods. It contributed to the Nullification Crisis.

29. War of 1812
    A conflict between the U.S. and Britain over issues like impressment of American sailors and British interference with American trade. The war ended in a stalemate with the Treaty of Ghent (1814), but it fostered American nationalism.

30. War Hawks
    Young, pro-war members of Congress (mainly from the South and West) who pushed for war against Britain in 1812, citing issues like British interference with American trade and impressment of sailors.

31. Specie
    Gold and silver coin, as opposed to paper money. The U.S. economy during the Jacksonian era saw a push for "hard money" and a return to specie after the Bank War.

32. Universal Male Suffrage
    The extension of voting rights to all adult men, regardless of property ownership. This expanded democratic participation, particularly during the Jacksonian era.

33. American System
    A series of economic policies promoted by Henry Clay, which included protective tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements, aimed at fostering economic growth and national unity.

34. Adams-Onis Treaty (1819)
    The treaty in which Spain ceded Florida to the U.S. and established a border between U.S. and Spanish territories.

35. Bank of the United States (First and Second)
    A national bank chartered by Congress, established to stabilize the currency and provide credit. It was controversial, especially under Jackson, who believed it concentrated too much power in the hands of elites.

36. Battle of New Orleans (1815)
    A decisive victory for the U.S. led by Andrew Jackson over British forces, which occurred after the War of 1812 had officially ended. It bolstered Jackson's popularity.

37. Cotton Gin (1793)
    Invented by Eli Whitney, this machine revolutionized cotton production by making it easier to separate cotton fibers from seeds, leading to a boom in cotton farming and increased demand for slave labor.

38. Revolution of 1800
    The peaceful transfer of power from John Adams (Federalists) to Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republicans), marking a shift in political power.

39. Embargo Act (1807)
    A law that halted U.S. trade with all foreign nations, aiming to avoid entanglement in European conflicts. It was highly unpopular and hurt the U.S. economy, leading to its repeal in 1809.

40. Erie Canal
    A canal built in New York state that connected the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes, facilitating trade and contributing to economic growth and westward expansion.

41. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
    A Supreme Court case that ruled only the federal government can regulate interstate commerce, strengthening federal power over states.

42. Hartford Convention (1814)
    A meeting of New England Federalists during the War of 1812, who protested against the war and discussed constitutional amendments to limit the power of the federal government

Significant Individuals

1. James Madison
   Fourth president of the U.S. (1809-1817) and "Father of the Constitution." Led the country during the War of 1812 and was instrumental in drafting the Bill of Rights.

2. John Quincy Adams
   Sixth president of the U.S. (1825-1829). His presidency was marked by internal improvements and foreign policy successes like the Adams-Onís Treaty, but he struggled with political opposition.

3. DeWitt Clinton
   Governor of New York who championed the construction of the Erie Canal, which revolutionized transportation and trade in the U.S.

4. Robert Fulton
   Inventor of the steamboat, which transformed transportation on U.S. rivers and contributed to the Market Revolution.

5. William Henry Harrison
   Ninth president of the U.S. and a hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe. Died shortly after taking office in 1841.

6. Eli Whitney
   Invented the cotton gin (1793), revolutionizing cotton production and the South’s reliance on slavery.

7. Sacajawea
   Shoshone woman who assisted Lewis and Clark during their expedition to the West.

8. Andrew Jackson
   Seventh president of the U.S. (1829-1837). Known for his populism, opposition to the national bank, and his role in the Indian Removal Act.

9. Thomas Jefferson
   Third president of the U.S. (1801-1809). Advocated for limited government and states' rights. Authored the Declaration of Independence.

10. Lewis and Clark
    Explorers who led the first American expedition across the western portion of the U.S. (1804-1806), mapping and studying the land acquired through the Louisiana Purchase.

11. Zebulon Pike
    Explorer who mapped the southwestern portion of the Louisiana Territory and the Rockies, providing valuable geographic information.

12. John Marshall
    Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, whose decisions established key principles of American constitutional law and expanded federal authority.

13. James Monroe
    Fifth president of the U.S. (1817-1825). Best known for the Monroe Doctrine, which warned European powers against interfering in the Western Hemisphere.

14. Francis Cabot Lowell
    Businessman who developed the Lowell system of textile manufacturing, employing young women in factories in Massachusetts.

Questions & Answers

1. How was slavery revived after the Revolutionary War?
   The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 made cotton a profitable crop, leading to a renewed demand for enslaved labor in the South, reviving and expanding slavery in the region.

2. How did international diplomacy influence domestic politics?
   Diplomatic events like the War of 1812, the Embargo Act, and foreign trade policies shaped domestic political parties. For example, the Embargo Act hurt the economy, leading to the rise of the War Hawks and increased partisan division.

3. What was the significance of Marbury v. Madison?
   It established judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional, thereby strengthening the judicial branch and promoting a system of checks and balances.

4. What were Thomas Jefferson’s key political principles?
   Jefferson believed in a strict interpretation of the Constitution, a limited federal government, states’ rights, and agrarianism as the foundation of American liberty.

5. How was the Louisiana Purchase in direct contrast to Jefferson’s political principles?
   Jefferson, a strict constitutionalist, believed the Constitution did not grant the president the power to buy land. However, he justified the purchase as necessary for national expansion and security.

6. What was the significance of the journey of Lewis and Clark?
   Their expedition expanded U.S. knowledge of the western territories, strengthened territorial claims, and helped foster relations with Native American tribes, laying the groundwork for future westward expansion.

7. To what extent was the Revolution of 1800 a true revolution?
   The Revolution of 1800 was a peaceful transfer of power from one political party to another, showcasing the strength and stability of the U.S. political system, but it did not result in significant changes to government structures.

8. Why did the United States go to war with Britain in 1812? Where its goals achieved?
   The U.S. went to war due to British impressment of American sailors, trade restrictions, and British support of Native American resistance. The war ended in a stalemate, but it fostered American nationalism and weakened Native American resistance.

9. Explain why the United States was so remarkably successful in the conduct of its diplomacy between 1815 and 1823 when it had been so unsuccessful before 1815.
   The U.S. was successful due to the post-War of 1812 nationalism, the leadership of figures like John Quincy Adams, and the Monroe Doctrine, which asserted U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

10. What were the major issues that divided the nation into competing political sections?
    Key issues included slavery, economic interests (tariffs, banking), and the balance of power between states and the federal government.

11. Explain what was at stake in Missouri’s admission to the Union.
    Missouri’s admission threatened the balance of power between free and slave states, as it would have tilted the Senate in favor of slave states, prompting the Missouri Compromise to maintain equilibrium.

12. Explain the significance of the U.S.-Spain (Adams-Onis or Transcontinental Treaty) of 1819.
    It resulted in Spain ceding Florida to the U.S. and established a boundary between the U.S. and Spanish territories, which removed Spain as a colonial threat to the U.S.

13. Explain the “corrupt bargain.”
    In the 1824 election, Andrew Jackson won the popular vote but lost in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams. Jackson’s supporters claimed that Adams and Henry Clay struck a corrupt deal for Clay’s support.

14. How did Jacksonian democracy transform American political culture?
    Jacksonian democracy expanded suffrage to all white men, promoted the spoils system, and emphasized populism, encouraging greater participation in government and challenging elite control.

15. How significant was the Second Great Awakening?
    The Second Great Awakening was a religious revival that promoted personal salvation, social reform, and led to movements like abolitionism, women’s rights, and temperance.

16. How significant was Worcester v. Georgia?
    The Court ruled that the Cherokee Nation was a sovereign entity and that Georgia’s laws did not apply to it. However, President Jackson ignored the ruling, leading to the forced relocation of the Cherokees on the Trail of Tears.

17. Why was Jackson at “war” with the national bank?
    Jackson opposed the Second Bank of the U.S. because he believed it concentrated too much power in the hands of elites and was unconstitutional. He vetoed its recharter and dismantled it, leading to the "Bank War."

18. How did Jackson respond to nullification?
    Jackson opposed nullification and threatened military force against South Carolina, which had declared federal tariffs unconstitutional. The crisis was resolved with a compromise tariff, but Jackson’s response reinforced federal supremacy.

19. Why did the Whig Party (and the Second Party System) form?
    The Whigs formed in opposition to Jackson’s policies, particularly his stance on the national bank, his use of executive power, and his opposition to federal internal improvements. The Whigs favored a more active federal government.

20. How did Alexis de Tocqueville evaluate American democracy?
    Tocqueville admired American democracy’s focus on equality, local self-government, and civic participation but also warned about the potential for "tyranny of the majority" and the dangers of individualism.

21. What were Alexis de Tocqueville’s observations about early nineteenth century America?
    He noted that Americans were highly active politically, had a strong sense of individualism, and demonstrated a unique combination of equality and liberty. He also saw growing inequality among classes and the marginalization of African Americans and Native Americans.

22. Why was the industrial revolution, with its factory system, slow in its development in the United States?
    The U.S. had limited capital for investment, scarce labor, and lacked infrastructure compared to Europe. It was also hindered by a reliance on agriculture and limited technical knowledge in manufacturing.

23. Describe the process whereby America created an industrial labor force.
    The U.S. industrial labor force grew through the migration of rural populations to urban areas, particularly women and children working in factories under the Lowell system. Immigrants also played a crucial role in building the workforce.

24. How important was the transportation revolution in opening the West and in the creation of a national economy?
    The construction of canals, railroads, and roads dramatically reduced transportation costs, linking distant markets and facilitating westward migration. It created a national economy by making trade easier and encouraging industrial growth.