AP Euro: Unit 8 - European States, International Wars, and Social Change

Enlightened Absolutism (~18th century)

• natural laws:
  • universal laws that govern nature (ex. motion, gravity, etc.)
  • affect us all in the same way --> all men are equal in the eyes of nature/god
  • led to the belief that society should be ordered according to these laws --> all men should be governed by the same sets of laws and all men should have rights that cannot be taken away
• natural rights: 
  • equality before the law
  • religious freedom
  • freedom of speech and press
  • right to assemble
  • right to hold property
  • life, liberty, and right to the pursuit of happiness
  • *only an enlightened ruler would preserve such rights
  • enlightened absolutism/despotism:
    • new monarchy type that developed based on rulers ruling by enlightened principles and following the advice of philosophes
• Prussian enlightened absolutism:
  • Frederick II the Great (FTG):
    • one of the most cultured and intellectual monarchs of the 18th century
    • successes: 
      • expanded the military
      • established a single code of laws
      • banned torture
      • allowed some freedom of speech/press
      • allowed complete religious toleration (Voltaire at his court)
      • survived 7 Years' War
    • failures: 
      • unable to rule without the nobility
      • allowed Junkers/Prussian nobility greater power and tightened class mobility
• Austrian enlightened absolutism:
  • Vienna:
    • music capital of Europe
    • home to the Habsburg palace (which was modeled after Versailles)
  • Austrian empire was struggling because there were too many nationalities, languages, and customs to be united
  • Maria Theresa:
    • appointed officials to take power from divisive diets (common people's councils)
    • created new administrative districts
    • forced clergy and nobles to pay taxes
    • allowed no religious toleration
    • lost Silesia to FTG during ascension
  • Joseph II succeeded his mother, Maria Theresa:
    • tried hard to follow enlightenment ideals:
      • made death penalty illegal
      • abolished serfdom and gave serfs the land that they worked (alienated nobility)
      • established equality before the law
      • allowed total religious tolerance (restrictions on the Catholic Church alienated Catholics)
      • made German the official language of Austria (alienated non-German speakers)
    • issued ~17000 legislations
• Russian enlightened absolutism:
  • Catherine the Great:
    • came to power after the murder of her husband
    • initially pursued reforms (new law code, equality before the law, questioned serfdom, use of torture, and death penalty)
      • sponsored and invited philosophes to her court to talk about enlightenment ideals
    • no reformed were ever enacted
    • she actually gave more power to the nobility
      • divided Russia into 50 provinces ruled by noble families who divided provinces into districts that they ran
      • nobles were exempt from taxation and corporal punishment
      • peasants suffered greatly and rebelled
  • Pugachev's rebellion:
    • rebellion formed under illiterate peasant Yemelyan Pugachev
    • he issued a manifesto which freed serfs and encouraged them to not pay taxes or participate in military service
    • the rebellion seized noble estates and slaughtered estate owners and families
    • Pugachev was betrayed by subordinates and was captured, tortured, and executed
    • Catherine responded to the rebellion with harsher repression of serfs
• partitions of Poland:
  • caused by Poland's weak monarchy (foreigner can be king, Liberum Veto, nobility were the most powerful in Poland in the 17th century)
  • to avoid war, Austria, Prussia, and Russia split Poland
  • Polish kingdom obliterated by 1795:
    • Russia got the most territory in Eastern Poland
    • Prussia got the land that unified their empire
    • Austria got rich agricultural lands in southern Poland
• war for Austrian succession (1740-1748):
  • Maria Theresa's father, Charles VI, spent his reign making sure European states would respect his daughter's rule once he died
  • when Charles died and Maria Theresa took the throne, FTG (Prussia) invaded and stole Silesia which led to war between Austria and Prussia
  • France joined on Prussia's side to capitalize on Austria's weakness
  • England joined Austria to keep France's power in check
  • far-reaching conflict with fights in Europe, America, and India
  • England and Austria vs. Prussia and France
  • England stole a French fort on the St. Lawrence River in the Americas
  • France stole Madras (India) from Britain and the Netherlands
  • all countries were exhausted by the end of the war so everyone returned the land they stole except for Prussia with Silesia
• problems in France:
  • Louis XIV was succeeded by weak kings:
    • Louis XV:
      • ruled poorly
      • too influenced by ministers and mistresses
      • lost 7 Years' War
      • lost territory in the Americas
      • sent France close to bankruptcy
    • Louis XVI was incompetent
  • high taxes, food shortages, and displays of wealth at Versailles made many peasants angry
• rule of the English Parliament:
  • United Kingdom:
    • unification of England and Scotland in 1707
  • parliament:
    • two groups that were both corrupt landowning elites:
      • House of Lord
      • House of Commons
  • monarchs ruled with parliament
    • monarchs appointed ministers and set policies
    • parliament wrote laws, levied taxes, and passed a budget
  • parliament's power expanded when the House of Orange ended without a heir and the throne was offered to a Prussian who spoke no English
    • parliament then worked with the King's regents
• warfare in the 1750s:
  • most nations used nobles to serve as officer corps of their respective militaries
  • most 'rank and file' soldiers were peasants but they didn't make up the entire enlisted corps because they were too valuable as almost free labor on farms
  • a large percentage of soldiers were mercenaries:
    • professional soldiers you pay to fight for you
    • will only be loyal as long as you continue to pay them
  • France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia had huge armies (did the most fighting on the European continent) and small navies (less resources for fighting overseas)
  • England and the Netherlands had large navies (England used lots of mercenaries) which often relied on pressing people into the military involuntarily
  • diseases like yellow fever and scurvy (caused by lack of vitamin C/nutrients, symptoms included sunken eyes, pale skin, and loss of teeth) were common among sailors --> ships became the prime agent for the spread of disease
  • rules now regulated how people fought:
    • defeated opponent (usually officers) were allowed to withdraw rather than be destroyed
    • fortresses that were besieged could choose to capitulate and everyone could retreat safely
  • people aren't as crazy to fight to the death as in religious/ideological wars
  • clever maneuvers were favored over full on confrontations
• 7 years' war (in Europe):
  • Austria, France and Russia vs. England and Prussia
  • Russia and Austria:
    • secret alliance against Prussia
    • promised Silesia to Austria
  • Prussia withstands the might of France, Russia, and Austria
    • defeated armies that outnumbered their own
    • did most of the fighting on the European continent while England fought overseas
    • under attack from 3 sides --> eventually wear down
  • Prussia was saved from destruction by the death of the Tsarina (Russian monarch) and ascension of Peter (who admired Frederick) who withdrew Russian troops --> Prussia fights to stalemate
• 7 years' war (in India):
  • England and France competed for the favor of local Indian princes who would help them fight 
  • most successful diplomat - Englishman Robert Clive
  • England was far more persistent at their diplomacy and won more supporters --> they were able to drive the French from India
• 7 years' war (in Americas):
  • struggle between the English, French, Native Americans, and colonial militias
  • the French have more native allies because they treat them better, learned their languages, and they had fewer settlers
  • 2 major conflict areas:
    • St. Lawrence River valley and Great Lakes
    • Ohio River valley
  • the English navy continuously defeats the French navy and the French were unable to resupply and reinforce their troops --> England was able to prevail because they had almost no troops in Europe so they could concentrate all their forces in the Americas/India
• 7 years' war (world):
  • France has been begging Spain (powerful, controlled sugar colonies) for aid
  • fearing that the balance of power tipping to England, Spain seizes English goods in Spain and England declares war on them
  • fighting in Caribbean and Indian Ocean: 
    • England's powerful navy defeats Spain and France
    • the English seized many islands in Indonesia and the Caribbean
  • fighting over trade posts in West Africa
  • territorial changes in the war:
    • England gains French Canada and Spanish Florida
    • Spain regains the Philippines
    • Spain gained French Louisiana to make up for the loss of Florida and for the French to repay their debts to Spain
• results of the 7 years' war:
  • loss for France, Austria, and Spain
    • Austria never regains Silesia
    • France forced to give up all Canada territory, land east of Mississippi, and their presence was limited in India and the Caribbean
  • balance of power:
    • all countries should have about the same power
    • when one country is gaining a lot of power, other countries gang up on them
  • the 7 years' war upset of the balance of power in Europe:
    • England and Prussia gain power and prestige while France and Austria lost it
  • England was the new colonial power in the Americas:
    • taxed colonists more to pay for the war --> American Revolution
• agricultural revolution:
  • the Dutch leads the agricultural revolution
  • made it easier to feed a large population
  • land reclamation from the sea
  • farm collectivization: 
    • many families work on one huge farm instead of many small ones
  • enclosures:
    • many small farms transformed into one big farm
  • farm collectivization and enclosures allowed for less workers on farms and more in other industries
  • Dutch farm journals:
    • detailed record of what works and what doesn't
      • what works - crop rotations, fertilizer, seed planting drill (deposited seeds lower and in lines)
• cottage industry:
  • first method of large scale creation of trade goods
  • system where entrepreneurs brought raw materials to workers (families in their own households) to spin thread and weave cloth to sell
  • ineffective because people in these homes are still busy with farming and choses, and each family would only do one step which takes more time
    • leads people to find new ways of doing things
• new technologies:
  • ended cottage industry
  • faster and effective mass production
  • cotton gin - removes seeds from cotton fibers
  • karting machine - rolls seedless fibers into slivers
  • spinning jenny and water frame - spun multiple spools of slivers into yarn
  • power loom - provides outline for weaving
  • flying shuttle - shoots thread through power loom at high speeds (actual weaving process)
  • water mills - provided water power to drive machines in factories alongside bodies of water
• new consumer:
  • stores began to open featuring new clothes manufactured first by cottage industries, then the mills
  • clothing that used to be available only to the wealthy could now be purchased in stores (mass produced stuff - cheaper, lower quality)
  • mercantile stores make their first appearance
  • high end goods became desirable --> new market with money to be made
• European society:
  • populations rising:
    • 1720: 120 million people
    • 1790s: 190 million people
  • food was not a problem like other bad harvest years because of foods sent from the Americas in the Columbian exchange
  • disease was common in cities because of inadequate waste disposal methods and cramped conditions
• conditions for the poor:
  • families in cities didn't need lots of children like on farms
  • lack of birth control --> few options for what to do with unwanted children
  • infanticide (killing babies) becomes common
    • law passed that infants couldn't share beds with parents because too many were 'accidentally suffocating'
  • orphanages became overcrowded and had super high mortality rates (basically legal infanticide)
  • primogeniture (giving the eldest song most/all of the estate) goes out of favor
• Spain:
  • at the beginning of the 18th century, Spain witnessed a change of dynasties under Philip V (Habsburg to Bourbon)
    • established laws, administrative institutions, French-style ministries, and language of Castile 
    • there were less administrative problems and less of a drain on resources because of the Treaty of Utrecht in which Spain's Italian and Netherland lands were taken
  • in the second half of the 18th century, Charles III came to power
    • Catholic Church was put under royal control (Jesuits banned, Inquisition restricted)
    • economic reforms
    • established infrastructure, mills, and banks
    • attempts to reduce aristocratic power
• Portugal:
  • in decline since the 16th century
  • revival under the ministry of Marquis de Pombal 
    • nobility and church were curtailed but regained power after his reign
    • secured reputation after devastating Lisbon earthquake
• Italian states:
  • after the Treaty of Utrecht, Austria replaced Spain as the dominant force in Italy
  • states were independent (Venice and Genoa) but they became powerless in international affairs
  • duchy of Milan, Sardinia, and Naples were surrendered the the Habsburgs
  • Sicily was given to Savoy whose goal was territorial expansion
  • Bourbons later reestablished control of Naples and Sicily
• Sweden: 
  • dominant power in the 17th century but not after the Battle of Poltava
  • after the death of Charles XII, the nobility used the diet to gain control of public life and weaken the monarchy
  • division of nobility (pro-French vs. pro-Russian) led to the reassertion of monarchy under Gustavus II
    • established freedom of religion, speech, and press
    • banned torture
    • reduced tariffs
    • abolished tolls
    • encourage trade and agriculture
  • nobles were mad at the reforms and loss of power so they assassinated the king but they were unable to restore the rule of the aristocracy
  • Denmark also had enlightened reforms by Christian VII and John Frederick Struensee (died due to aristocratic opposition)
• mercantile empires and worldwide trade:
  • overseas trade boomed and the most profitable 'goods' were enslaved Africans
  • African slave trade and the plantation economy in the Americas that depended on it were an integral part of the Atlantic economy
    • enabled west Europe (near ports) greater prosperity than central and east Europe
  • trade between Europe, their colonies, the Americas, Africa, and Asia increased which led to the expansion of merchant fleets
  • rise of Atlantic trade led to...
    • greater prosperity for port cities
    • growth of related industries (textile manufacturing, sugar refining, tobacco processing, dock workers, tradesmen, servants, service people, etc.)