Psychology Final Exam Study Guide 1-5

Critical Thinking:

The ability to analyze information thoughtfully and question assumptions. This involves evaluating evidence before forming conclusions, especially in areas like the emotional impacts of social media, where data can be misleading.

Skepticism:

A questioning attitude toward knowledge, facts, or opinions stated as facts. This helps in discerning credible sources and research findings.

Objectivity:

Maintaining neutrality and minimizing bias in research and analysis, ensuring that personal feelings do not influence outcomes.

Curiosity:

A strong desire to learn more about human behavior and mental processes, driving psychological inquiry.

B. Psychology in Historical Perspective

Wundt’s Structuralism:

Founded by Wilhelm Wundt, this school of thought focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic elements through introspection, or self-examination of thoughts.

James’ Functionalism:

Proposed by William James, this perspective emphasized the purpose of mental processes in adapting to the environment, highlighting the practical aspects of psychology.

Darwin’s Natural Selection:

Influenced psychological thought by introducing the idea that behaviors evolve through natural selection, as advantageous traits are passed down.

### C. Scientific Method

Steps of the Scientific Method:

1. Observe: Identify phenomena or behaviors of interest.

2. Hypothesize: Formulate a testable prediction based on existing theories.

3. Test: Conduct experiments or gather data to evaluate the hypothesis.

4. Conclusions: Analyze the data to determine if it supports the hypothesis.

5. Evaluate: Reflect on the research process and results, considering alternative explanations.

Types of Research:

- Descriptive Research: Involves observing and describing behaviors. Methods include:

- Observation: Watching subjects in natural or controlled environments (e.g., Gottman’s studies on relationships).

- Surveys and Interviews: Gathering self-reported data from participants.

- Case Studies: In-depth analysis of an individual or group.

- Correlational Research: Examines relationships between variables, determining if they are related and to what extent.

- Experimental Research: Involves manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships, utilizing:

- Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to conditions to control for biases.

- Independent Variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher.

- Dependent Variable: The variable measured in response to changes in the independent variable.

- Confounding Variables: Other factors that could influence the outcome, which should be controlled.

Issues Related to Experimental Research:

- Internal Validity: Ensures that the results are due to the independent variable, not extraneous factors.

- External Validity: The extent to which findings can be generalized to the real world.

- Research Settings: Differentiates between lab and field settings and their impact on behavior.

- Experimenter Bias: When a researcher’s expectations influence the outcome.

- Demand Characteristics: Participants altering their behavior based on perceived study expectations.

- Participant Bias: Individuals may respond differently based on their awareness of being studied.

- Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior resulting from expectations rather than actual treatment.

Samples and Populations:

- Random Samples: Participants are selected randomly to represent a larger population.

- Representative Samples: Reflect the characteristics of the larger population.

- Biased Samples: Skewed data due to non-representative sampling methods.

Analyzing Data:

- Descriptive Statistics: Summarizes and describes characteristics of data (e.g., mean, median, mode).

- Inferential Statistics: Makes predictions and inferences about a population based on sample data.

- Measures of Central Tendency: Identify the central point of data (mean, median, mode).

- Measures of Dispersion: Show how spread out the data is (range, variance, standard deviation).

Ethics in Research:

- APA Guidelines: Ethical principles set by the American Psychological Association, including:

- Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the study and consent to participate.

- Confidentiality: Personal data must be kept private.

- Debriefing: Participants should be informed about the study's purpose after completion.

- Deception: If deception is necessary, it must not cause distress.

- Institutional Review Board (IRB): Reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

Thinking Critically About Psychological Research:

Always question the reliability and validity of findings, considering biases, sample sizes, and methodologies used.

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## II. Biological Foundations of Behavior (Chapter 3)

### A. Organization of the Brain

Brainstem:

Controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing, composed of:

- Reticular Formation: Regulates wakefulness and arousal.

- Pons: Connects different parts of the brain and plays a role in sleep and arousal.

- Medulla: Controls autonomic functions like heart rate and respiration.

Thalamus:

Acts as the brain's relay station for sensory information.

Cerebellum:

Coordinates movement and balance and contributes to motor learning.

Limbic System:

Involved in emotion and memory; includes:

- Hippocampus: Essential for forming new memories.

- Amygdala: Key role in emotional responses, especially fear and pleasure.

- Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and circadian rhythms.

Cerebral Cortex:

The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions.

### B. Cerebral Cortex

Lobes:

- Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information.

- Temporal Lobe: Involved in auditory processing and memory.

- Frontal Lobe: Controls executive functions, planning, and personality.

- Parietal Lobe: Manages sensory information related to touch and spatial awareness.

Key Areas:

- Somatosensory Cortex: Processes sensory input from the body.

- Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movement.

- Visual Cortex: Processes visual stimuli.

- Auditory Cortex: Handles auditory information.

Association Areas:

Integrate information from various sensory modalities; significant cases include:

- Phineas Gage: His accident revealed insights into personality changes following frontal lobe damage.

Aphasia Types:

- Broca’s Aphasia: Difficulty producing speech but comprehension remains intact.

- Wernicke’s Aphasia: Fluent speech with poor comprehension.

### C. Neural Communication

Neurons:

The fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, consisting of:

- Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body.

- Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.

- Synapses: Junctions where communication occurs between neurons.

- Action Potentials: Electrical impulses that travel along the axon.

- Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit signals across the synapse (e.g., acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin).

- Reuptake: The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron after transmitting signals.

### D. Plasticity

Neuroplasticity:

The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt. Key processes include:

- Collateral Sprouting: Neighboring neurons make new connections after damage.

- Substitution of Function: Other parts of the brain take over functions after injury.

- Neurogenesis: The creation of new neurons, especially in the hippocampus.

Examples of Plasticity:

Adaptations observed in individuals with conditions like hydrocephalus, where excess cerebrospinal fluid affects brain structure.

### E. Split Brain Research

Corpus Callosum:

Connects the left and right hemispheres, facilitating communication.

Functions:

- Left Hemisphere: Typically associated with language, analytical tasks, and logical reasoning.

- Right Hemisphere: Involved in creativity, spatial abilities, and recognizing faces.

### F. Genetics

Chromosomes:

Structures within cells that contain DNA.

Genes:

Segments of DNA that determine specific traits.

DNA:

The molecule that carries genetic instructions.

### G. Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotype:

The genetic makeup of an individual.

Phenotype:

The observable characteristics resulting from the genotype and environmental influences.

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## III. Sensation and Perception (Chapter 4)

### A. Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation:

The process of detecting stimuli through sensory organs.

Perception:

The interpretation of sensory information, influenced by experience and context.

Processing Types:

- Bottom-Up Processing: Starts with sensory input and builds up to perception.

- Top-Down Processing: Uses background knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information.

### B. Sensory Receptors and the Brain

Photoreception:

The mechanism by which the eye perceives light, involving rods and cones in the retina.

- Absolute Threshold: The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected.

- Difference Threshold (Weber’s Law): The smallest change in stimulus intensity that can be detected, proportional to the original stimulus intensity.

- Subliminal Perception: The ability to perceive stimuli below conscious awareness.

I. Attention and Selective Attention

Definitions:

- Attention: The process of focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

- Selective Attention: Concentrating on one aspect of the environment while filtering out others.

Key Concepts:

- Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment.

- Inattentional Blindness: Failing to notice unexpected stimuli when focusing on a specific task.

II. Vision 

1. Structure of the Eye: 

1. Retina: Layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptors. 

2. Rods: Photoreceptors sensitive to low light levels; responsible for night vision. 

3. Cones: Photoreceptors that detect color and function well in bright light. 

4. Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. 

2. Feature Detector Cells and Supercell Clusters: 

1. Feature Detector Cells: Neurons that respond to specific features of a stimulus (e.g., edges, angles). 

2. Supercell Clusters: Groups of neurons that respond to complex patterns. 

3. Visual Perception and Visual Illusions: 

1. Movement Aftereffects: Illusion of motion after viewing a moving stimulus. 

2. Muller-Lyer Illusion: Misjudgment of line length due to arrowheads. 

3. Ponzo Illusion: Perception of depth affecting size judgments. 

4. Size Constancy: Perceiving objects as the same size despite distance changes. 

5. Ames Room: A distorted room that creates size illusions. 

6. Shape Constancy: Perception of objects as having a constant shape regardless of viewing angle. 

7. Lightness Constancy: Perception of an object’s color/brightness under varying lighting. 

8. Checker-Shadow Illusion: Perception affected by surrounding context. 

9. Figure-Ground: Distinguishing an object from its background. 

10. Gestalt Grouping Principles: Rules for organizing visual information (e.g., proximity, similarity, continuity). 

4. Theories of Color Vision: 

1. Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue. 

2. Opponent-Process Theory: Color perception based on opposing colors (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow). 

5. Depth Perception: 

1. Binocular Cues: Use of both eyes to perceive depth (e.g., convergence). 

2. Monocular Cues: Depth cues available to one eye (e.g., relative size, interposition). 

III. Auditory Perception 

• Structures and Functions: 

• Outer Ear: Collects sound waves. 

• Middle Ear: Amplifies sound (ossicles: hammer, anvil, stirrup). 

• Inner Ear: Contains cochlea; converts sound waves into neural signals. 

• Cochlear Implant: Device that stimulates auditory nerve fibers. 

IV. States of Consciousness (Chapter 5) 

A. Consciousness: Awareness of self and environment; includes arousal levels. B. Consciousness and the Brain: Role of the reticular activating system in regulating wakefulness. C. Theory of Mind: Understanding that others have thoughts and perspectives different from one's own. D. Levels of Awareness: Varying degrees of consciousness (focused attention to deep sleep). E. Biological Rhythms: 

• Circadian Rhythms: Biological processes that follow a 24-hour cycle. 

• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: Brain region regulating circadian rhythms. 

• Desynchronizing/Re-setting the Biological Clock: Effects of light exposure and lifestyle. 

F. Why We Need Sleep: 

• Importance for physical health, cognitive function, and emotional well-being. 

• Effects of Chronic Sleep Deprivation: Impaired cognitive performance, mood changes, health issues. 

G. Sleep Stages: 

• W-alert: Fully awake. 

• W-relaxed: Drowsy, relaxed state. 

• N1: Light sleep easily awakened. 

• N2: Moderate sleep, heart rate slows. 

• N3: Deep sleep, restorative processes. 

• R (REM): Dream stage, increased brain activity. 

H. Sleep Disorders: 

• Insomnia: Difficulty falling/staying asleep. 

• Narcolepsy: Uncontrollable sleep attacks. 

I. Theories of Dreaming: Various interpretations of why we dream (e.g., wish fulfillment, information processing). 

J. Psychoactive Drugs: 

1. Effects: Alter perceptions, moods, and consciousness. 

1. Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effect. 

2. Addiction: Physical and psychological dependence; affects the reward pathway. 

2. Categories: 

1. Depressants: Alcohol, opiates (e.g., heroin). 

2. Stimulants: Amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, caffeine, nicotine. 

3. Hallucinogens: Marijuana, LSD. 

K. Hypnosis: 

1. Nature of Hypnosis: Altered state of consciousness; involves focus and suggestibility. 

2. Four Steps in Hypnosis: Induction, deepening, suggestion, and awakening. 

3. Explaining Hypnosis: 

1. Divided Consciousness: Two levels of awareness. 

2. Social Cognitive Behavior: Role of social influence and expectations. 

4. Uses and Effectiveness: Pain relief, stress reduction, behavioral changes.