Orchestral Families, Keyboards, Rhythm & Notation – Comprehensive Study Notes

String Family

  • Core orchestral members: violin, viola, cello, double-bass (aka string bass, upright bass)
    • Construction: hollow wooden body, neck, 4 strings tuned in 5ths (bass tuned in 4ths)
    • Vibrating element = the string itself
    • No frets: exact finger placement required for accurate intonation; contrast with guitar frets
    • Bow (right hand) vs pizzicato (plucking) techniques
    • Bowing = continuous “sawing” motion; pizzicato changes timbre and articulation
  • Harp
    • Large triangular frame, 47 strings, foot pedals retune strings enharmonically
    • Regular guest but not guaranteed in every score; used at composer’s discretion
  • Guest string instruments (guitar, bass guitar, mandolin, etc.)
    • Appear when specifically scored; not core members

Woodwind Family

  • Basic principle: air vibrates inside a tube; pitch altered by opening/closing tone holes
  • Vibrating element
    • Flute & piccolo: edge-tone (air split on embouchure hole edge – “blowing across a bottle” analogy)
    • All others use reeds (cane):
    • Single-reed: clarinet, bass clarinet, saxophone family
    • Double-reed: oboe, English horn, bassoon, contrabassoon
  • Instrument summaries
    • Piccolo: half-size flute, highest regular orchestral pitch
    • Flute: silver or gold alloy, agile, wide range
    • Clarinet: cylindrical bore, large range, versatile timbre
    • Oboe: conical bore, principal tuning reference; clear penetrating pitch
    • English horn: alto/tenor oboe, mellow tone
    • Bassoon: folded 9-ft conical tube; bass voice; contrabassoon an octave lower
    • Saxophones (soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, bass): 19th-century Adolphe Sax invention; metal body yet woodwind by reed/mouthpiece; common in jazz/pop, rare in orchestra

Brass Family

  • Sound production: player’s buzzing lips against cup-shaped mouthpiece (vibrating element = lips)
  • Core orchestral brass: French horn, trumpet, trombone, tuba
    • French horn: long coiled tubing; historic hunting calls; wide range; blends with woodwinds
    • Trumpet: highest brass; cylindrical bore; bright, brilliant tone
    • Trombone: telescoping slide enables continuous pitch change (glissandi)
    • Tuba: bass foundation; largest mouthpiece; deep resonance
  • Mutes
    • Devices inserted in bell to change timbre/volume (metal, fiber, rubber, plungers)
    • Early jazz use: toilet-plunger rubber cup for “wah-wah” effects

Percussion Family

  • Definition: instruments sounded by striking, shaking, or rubbing; most numerous globally
  • Two categories
    • Definite-pitch (tuned): timpani, xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, glockenspiel, chimes, etc.
    • Indefinite-pitch (untuned): snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, claves, etc.
  • Highlights
    • Timpani (kettle drums): foot pedal tightens head; \text{definite pitch}; can execute glissandi and tuned patterns
    • Xylophone: wooden bars laid like piano keyboard; struck with mallets; clear pitched sounds
    • Snare drum: strands (snares) under bottom head create characteristic rattle
    • Cymbals: crash variety (indefinite pitch)
  • Orchestral percussionists must master all percussion instruments; unlike other sections where players specialize

Instrument Techniques & Accessories

  • Bowing articulations, pizzicato, col legno, harmonics (noted but primary focus on pizzicato vs bow)
  • Reed care: cane shaving, soaking, replacement; affects tone/response
  • Brass mutes: straight, cup, harmon, bucket; alter color & dynamics

Small & Mixed Ensembles (Listening Assignments)

  • String quartet: 2 violins, viola, cello
    • Beethoven’s 16 quartets (Op. 59 No. 3 example) – pinnacle of genre; initially deemed “unplayable”
  • Wind quintet: flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, French horn – horn adds depth to reed textures
  • Brass quintet: 2 trumpets, horn, trombone, tuba – arrangement of Bach organ work used as example
  • Percussion ensemble: showcases both tuned & untuned instruments; creative timbral palette
  • Full-orchestra cartoon score (Tom & Jerry at MGM): illustrates combined families, mutes, string pizz, trombone slides, special percussion

Keyboard Instruments

Pipe Organ (“King of Instruments”)

  • Air forced through pipes (flue & reed ranks); keyboards called manuals plus pedalboard
  • Stops: knobs/tabs controlling which pipe ranks speak; vast orchestral palette
  • Volume pedals (swell) for dynamic shading
  • Delay factor: key→valve→air column response, requires anticipatory technique
  • Example: Dr. Carol Williams performing “Flight of the Bumblebee” primarily with feet

Harpsichord (1500-1750 peak)

  • Jack mechanism plucks string with quill; no dynamic variation (regardless of finger force)
  • Often double-manual for registration changes; key color akin to inverted modern piano
  • Used extensively by Bach; example: Bach Harpsichord Concerto excerpt

Pianoforte → Piano

  • Invented ca. 1700 by Bartolomeo Cristofori; escapement action: felt-covered hammer strikes string then rebounds
  • Name = \text{piano (soft)} + \text{forte (loud)} – first keyboard capable of wide dynamics (gradual crescendo, sudden accents)
  • Perfected & mass-produced by late 18th C.; cornerstone for Mozart & Beethoven
  • Internal anatomy video illustrates key/hammer/escapement interaction

Electronic Keyboards & Synthesizers

  • 1857: first phonographic recording → 1878 amplification experiments → 1929 electric organs (Hammond)
  • 1930s: amplified guitars
  • 1950s: early analog synthesizers & electric pianos (Wurlitzer, Fender Rhodes)
  • 1967: Robert Moog’s voltage-controlled modular synthesizer; Beatles used on “Abbey Road”
  • Modern Moog “Slim Phatty” demo: infinite programmable waveforms, sequencing, looping

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface, 1983)

  • Digital protocol enabling keyboards, computers, drum machines to exchange performance data (note on/off, velocity, control changes)
  • Allows home composition, orchestration, editing (move/quantize notes), and instrument assignment
  • Buyer tips: seek keyboards with \text{MIDI} ports & weighted keys for expressive dynamics

Electronics Timeline (Summary)

  • 1857 – Phonautograph (first recording)
  • 1878 – Early amplification
  • 1929 – Electric/console organ
  • 1935 – Magnetic tape recording
  • 1950 – Analog synthesizer prototypes & electric piano
  • 1983 – MIDI standard finalized

Fundamentals of Rhythm

Key Terms

  • Rhythm: pattern of durations (short/long) & silences
  • Beat: steady underlying pulse dividing music into equal units
  • Meter: regular grouping of beats into measures (duple, triple, quadruple)
  • Accent: emphasis on a beat; syncopation – accenting off-beats or weak parts of beat

Common Meters

  • Duple: \text{ONE-two} (march-like) – example video clip
  • Triple: \text{ONE-two-three} (waltz) – Haydn symphony sample; “I Love a Four Beat” novelty shows switch from 3→4
  • Quadruple: \text{ONE-two-three-four} – most popular & jazz/rock standards

Syncopation Examples

  • Curtis Mayfield “Move On Up” – bassline accents between beats
  • Stevie Wonder “Superstition” – clavinet riff off-beat
  • Stravinsky “The Rite of Spring” – extreme orchestral syncopation obscuring meter

Tempo & Markings

  • Italian terms (slow→fast): Largo, Adagio, Andante, Moderato, Allegro, Vivace, Presto, Prestissimo
  • Changes: Accelerando (speed up), Ritardando (slow down)
  • Metronome: device giving precise beats per minute (BPM)

Note & Rest Values (symbolic math)

  • Whole note = 4 beats, half = 2, quarter = 1, eighth = \frac12, sixteenth = \frac14
  • Equivalent rests carry identical durations; silence must be notated

Time Signatures

  • Written as fraction \frac{X}{Y} at staff start
    • Top X = beats per measure
    • Bottom Y = note value receiving one beat (1=whole, 2=half, 4=quarter, 8=eighth, etc.)
  • Example \frac{3}{4} = 3 beats, quarter-note pulse
  • Pickup (anacrusis): partial opening measure balanced by incomplete final bar

Classroom Clapping Exercise

  • Soprano/alto/tenor/bass rhythmic lines in 4/4; demonstrates layered rhythms & use of rests

Notating Pitch

  • Staff: 5 lines/4 spaces; vertical position = pitch height
  • Clefs
    • Treble (G-clef) for high instruments/right-hand piano
    • Bass (F-clef) for low instruments/left-hand piano
  • Grand Staff: treble + bass connected by brace for keyboard music
  • Letter names cycle A–G; higher octave repeats letters
  • Ledger lines extend staff for very high/low notes

Conducting & Full Score

  • Conductor holds master score containing every instrument line
  • Uses baton to indicate tempo, cues, dynamics; musicians see only their part
  • Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony score-following video illustrates moving red line across systems

Practical / Philosophical Notes & Exam Hints

  • Vibrating element test clues: strings (string), reed (woodwind), lips (brass), membrane/bar/air (percussion)
  • Oboe gives tuning A; critical for orchestral unity
  • Percussionists must be multi-instrumentalists; rare among other sections
  • French horn historical role (hunting) & balance duties in wind/brass quintets
  • Piano evolution enabled dynamic nuance → directly influenced Romantic compositional style
  • MIDI democratizes composition; ethical debate on authenticity vs human performers

Suggested Critical Listening Skills

  • Identify instrument family by timbre
  • Locate meter & feel syncopation
  • Notice dynamic contrasts (piano vs forte)
  • Observe orchestration choices (who has melody vs accompaniment)
  • Relate historical context (invention dates, technology) to sonic outcome

Upcoming Exam Tips (instructor flags)

  • Vibrating element of brass = player’s lips
  • Definition and function of stops on organ
  • Meaning of MIDI acronym
  • Meter recognition & time signature components