Orchestral Families, Keyboards, Rhythm & Notation – Comprehensive Study Notes

String Family

• Core orchestral members: violin, viola, cello, double-bass (aka string bass, upright bass)
  • Construction: hollow wooden body, neck, 4 strings tuned in 5ths (bass tuned in 4ths)
  • Vibrating element = the string itself
  • No frets: exact finger placement required for accurate intonation; contrast with guitar frets
  • Bow (right hand) vs pizzicato (plucking) techniques
  • Bowing = continuous “sawing” motion; pizzicato changes timbre and articulation
• Harp
  • Large triangular frame, 47 strings, foot pedals retune strings enharmonically
  • Regular guest but not guaranteed in every score; used at composer’s discretion
• Guest string instruments (guitar, bass guitar, mandolin, etc.)
  • Appear when specifically scored; not core members

Woodwind Family

• Basic principle: air vibrates inside a tube; pitch altered by opening/closing tone holes
• Vibrating element
  • Flute & piccolo: edge-tone (air split on embouchure hole edge – “blowing across a bottle” analogy)
  • All others use reeds (cane):
  • Single-reed: clarinet, bass clarinet, saxophone family
  • Double-reed: oboe, English horn, bassoon, contrabassoon
• Instrument summaries
  • Piccolo: half-size flute, highest regular orchestral pitch
  • Flute: silver or gold alloy, agile, wide range
  • Clarinet: cylindrical bore, large range, versatile timbre
  • Oboe: conical bore, principal tuning reference; clear penetrating pitch
  • English horn: alto/tenor oboe, mellow tone
  • Bassoon: folded 9-ft conical tube; bass voice; contrabassoon an octave lower
  • Saxophones (soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, bass): 19th-century Adolphe Sax invention; metal body yet woodwind by reed/mouthpiece; common in jazz/pop, rare in orchestra

Brass Family

• Sound production: player’s buzzing lips against cup-shaped mouthpiece (vibrating element = lips)
• Core orchestral brass: French horn, trumpet, trombone, tuba
  • French horn: long coiled tubing; historic hunting calls; wide range; blends with woodwinds
  • Trumpet: highest brass; cylindrical bore; bright, brilliant tone
  • Trombone: telescoping slide enables continuous pitch change (glissandi)
  • Tuba: bass foundation; largest mouthpiece; deep resonance
• Mutes
  • Devices inserted in bell to change timbre/volume (metal, fiber, rubber, plungers)
  • Early jazz use: toilet-plunger rubber cup for “wah-wah” effects

Percussion Family

• Definition: instruments sounded by striking, shaking, or rubbing; most numerous globally
• Two categories
  • Definite-pitch (tuned): timpani, xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, glockenspiel, chimes, etc.
  • Indefinite-pitch (untuned): snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, claves, etc.
• Highlights
  • Timpani (kettle drums): foot pedal tightens head; \text{definite pitch}; can execute glissandi and tuned patterns
  • Xylophone: wooden bars laid like piano keyboard; struck with mallets; clear pitched sounds
  • Snare drum: strands (snares) under bottom head create characteristic rattle
  • Cymbals: crash variety (indefinite pitch)
• Orchestral percussionists must master all percussion instruments; unlike other sections where players specialize

Instrument Techniques & Accessories

• Bowing articulations, pizzicato, col legno, harmonics (noted but primary focus on pizzicato vs bow)
• Reed care: cane shaving, soaking, replacement; affects tone/response
• Brass mutes: straight, cup, harmon, bucket; alter color & dynamics

Small & Mixed Ensembles (Listening Assignments)

• String quartet: 2 violins, viola, cello
  • Beethoven’s 16 quartets (Op. 59 No. 3 example) – pinnacle of genre; initially deemed “unplayable”
• Wind quintet: flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, French horn – horn adds depth to reed textures
• Brass quintet: 2 trumpets, horn, trombone, tuba – arrangement of Bach organ work used as example
• Percussion ensemble: showcases both tuned & untuned instruments; creative timbral palette
• Full-orchestra cartoon score (Tom & Jerry at MGM): illustrates combined families, mutes, string pizz, trombone slides, special percussion

Keyboard Instruments

Pipe Organ (“King of Instruments”)

• Air forced through pipes (flue & reed ranks); keyboards called manuals plus pedalboard
• Stops: knobs/tabs controlling which pipe ranks speak; vast orchestral palette
• Volume pedals (swell) for dynamic shading
• Delay factor: key→valve→air column response, requires anticipatory technique
• Example: Dr. Carol Williams performing “Flight of the Bumblebee” primarily with feet

Harpsichord (1500-1750 peak)

• Jack mechanism plucks string with quill; no dynamic variation (regardless of finger force)
• Often double-manual for registration changes; key color akin to inverted modern piano
• Used extensively by Bach; example: Bach Harpsichord Concerto excerpt

Pianoforte → Piano

• Invented ca. 1700 by Bartolomeo Cristofori; escapement action: felt-covered hammer strikes string then rebounds
• Name = \text{piano (soft)} + \text{forte (loud)} – first keyboard capable of wide dynamics (gradual crescendo, sudden accents)
• Perfected & mass-produced by late 18th C.; cornerstone for Mozart & Beethoven
• Internal anatomy video illustrates key/hammer/escapement interaction

Electronic Keyboards & Synthesizers

• 1857: first phonographic recording → 1878 amplification experiments → 1929 electric organs (Hammond)
• 1930s: amplified guitars
• 1950s: early analog synthesizers & electric pianos (Wurlitzer, Fender Rhodes)
• 1967: Robert Moog’s voltage-controlled modular synthesizer; Beatles used on “Abbey Road”
• Modern Moog “Slim Phatty” demo: infinite programmable waveforms, sequencing, looping

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface, 1983)

• Digital protocol enabling keyboards, computers, drum machines to exchange performance data (note on/off, velocity, control changes)
• Allows home composition, orchestration, editing (move/quantize notes), and instrument assignment
• Buyer tips: seek keyboards with \text{MIDI} ports & weighted keys for expressive dynamics

Electronics Timeline (Summary)

• 1857 – Phonautograph (first recording)
• 1878 – Early amplification
• 1929 – Electric/console organ
• 1935 – Magnetic tape recording
• 1950 – Analog synthesizer prototypes & electric piano
• 1983 – MIDI standard finalized

Fundamentals of Rhythm

Key Terms

• Rhythm: pattern of durations (short/long) & silences
• Beat: steady underlying pulse dividing music into equal units
• Meter: regular grouping of beats into measures (duple, triple, quadruple)
• Accent: emphasis on a beat; syncopation – accenting off-beats or weak parts of beat

Common Meters

• Duple: \text{ONE-two} (march-like) – example video clip
• Triple: \text{ONE-two-three} (waltz) – Haydn symphony sample; “I Love a Four Beat” novelty shows switch from 3→4
• Quadruple: \text{ONE-two-three-four} – most popular & jazz/rock standards

Syncopation Examples

• Curtis Mayfield “Move On Up” – bassline accents between beats
• Stevie Wonder “Superstition” – clavinet riff off-beat
• Stravinsky “The Rite of Spring” – extreme orchestral syncopation obscuring meter

Tempo & Markings

• Italian terms (slow→fast): Largo, Adagio, Andante, Moderato, Allegro, Vivace, Presto, Prestissimo
• Changes: Accelerando (speed up), Ritardando (slow down)
• Metronome: device giving precise beats per minute (BPM)

Note & Rest Values (symbolic math)

• Whole note = 4 beats, half = 2, quarter = 1, eighth = \frac12, sixteenth = \frac14
• Equivalent rests carry identical durations; silence must be notated

Time Signatures

• Written as fraction \frac{X}{Y} at staff start
  • Top X = beats per measure
  • Bottom Y = note value receiving one beat (1=whole, 2=half, 4=quarter, 8=eighth, etc.)
• Example \frac{3}{4} = 3 beats, quarter-note pulse
• Pickup (anacrusis): partial opening measure balanced by incomplete final bar

Classroom Clapping Exercise

• Soprano/alto/tenor/bass rhythmic lines in 4/4; demonstrates layered rhythms & use of rests

Notating Pitch

• Staff: 5 lines/4 spaces; vertical position = pitch height
• Clefs
  • Treble (G-clef) for high instruments/right-hand piano
  • Bass (F-clef) for low instruments/left-hand piano
• Grand Staff: treble + bass connected by brace for keyboard music
• Letter names cycle A–G; higher octave repeats letters
• Ledger lines extend staff for very high/low notes

Conducting & Full Score

• Conductor holds master score containing every instrument line
• Uses baton to indicate tempo, cues, dynamics; musicians see only their part
• Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony score-following video illustrates moving red line across systems

Practical / Philosophical Notes & Exam Hints

• Vibrating element test clues: strings (string), reed (woodwind), lips (brass), membrane/bar/air (percussion)
• Oboe gives tuning A; critical for orchestral unity
• Percussionists must be multi-instrumentalists; rare among other sections
• French horn historical role (hunting) & balance duties in wind/brass quintets
• Piano evolution enabled dynamic nuance → directly influenced Romantic compositional style
• MIDI democratizes composition; ethical debate on authenticity vs human performers

Suggested Critical Listening Skills

• Identify instrument family by timbre
• Locate meter & feel syncopation
• Notice dynamic contrasts (piano vs forte)
• Observe orchestration choices (who has melody vs accompaniment)
• Relate historical context (invention dates, technology) to sonic outcome

Upcoming Exam Tips (instructor flags)

• Vibrating element of brass = player’s lips
• Definition and function of stops on organ
• Meaning of MIDI acronym
• Meter recognition & time signature components