Myers’ Psychology for AP Second Edition Unit 1: Psychology’s History and Approaches

Module 1: Psychology’s History 

Psychology’s Roots

Prescientific Psychology:

• Thinkers throughout history wondered how the mind worked, how does the body relate to the mind, and if knowledge is learned through experience or is it built in?
• These thinkers were found all around the world including India, China, and Israel 
• In Ancient Greece the philosophers Socrates and Plato believed the mind was separate from the body. They thought the mind could continue when someone died and that all knowledge is born within us.  
• Aristotle believed knowledge was not preexisting but rather grows from experience 
• In the 1600s new theories began to rise. Frenchmen René Descartes agreed with Socrates and Plato. He studied animals and concluded that the fluid in their brains contained their spirits. The spirits would flow through nerves into muscles allowing movement
• In Britain, Francis Bacon tried to understand humans perceiving patterns. He researched how humans notice and remember different events 
• John Locke went on to write and essay arguing that the mind is a blank slate, tabula rasa, that experience writes upon 

Psychological Science is Born: 

• The birth of psychology as we know it came sometime in December of 1879, at the University of Leipzig in Germany
• Professor Wundt was conducting an experiment regarding people hearing a sound.
• He then started seeking to measure the fastest  and simplest mental processes, which he called “atoms of the mind”
• Psychology then organized into 3 branches called structuralism, functionalism, and behavioralism.
  
  

Thinking About the Mind’s Structure:

• Titchener, one of Wundt’s students, joined the Cornell faculty and began to teach structuralism
• He wanted to discover the structural elements of the mind
• He wanted people to engage in introspection. However, this didn’t work out as each person came with different experience. It is also difficult for people to explain why they feel certain ways. This caused people to slowly lose interest in structuralism 

Thinking About the Mind’s Functions:

• James thought it would be useful to understand the evolution of thoughts and feelings
• He questioned why the nose smelled and why the brain thought
• He was heavily influenced by Darwin, believing the conscious allowed us to consider the past, adjust to the present, and plan for the future 
• James was a functionalist so he wanted people to explore emotions, memories, willpower, habits, etc 
• James admitted Mary Whiton Calkins into his seminars. All of the men to dropped out, leaving him to teacher her alone. Although Calkins had the best scores and met all qualifications for a Ph. D., Harvard refused to give her one 
• Margaret Floy Washburn was given the claim to psychology’s first female with a Ph. D. Because she was a woman, she could not become an experimental psychologist. But her work did inspire many women 

Psychological Science Develops

• Until the 1920s psychology was defined as “the science of mental life”
• In the 1920s, Watson and Skinner dismissed introspection and defined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior.” They thought that since science is rooted in observation, but you cannot observe a feeling, you must observe a behavior. 
• This theory lead to the rise of behaviorists up until the 1960s 
• Also occurring was Freudian psychology, which believed thought processes and emotions were affected by childhood experiences 
• Rogers and Maslow found both Freudian and behavioral too limiting. They became humanistic psychologists and focused on how current environments can limit or grow potential 
• The cognitive revolution occurred in the 1960s. It focused on how the mind processes and retains information.
• Today, psychology is defined as “the science of behavior and mental processes” 

Module 2: Psychology’s Big Issues and Approaches 

Psychology’s Biggest Question: 

• Psychology's biggest questions is “are human traits present at birth, or do they develop through experience?”
• This nature vs nurture debate has gone on for centuries, including the time of the ancient Greeks
• The debate was brought back in the 1600s. Locke rejected the idea of humans being born with knowledge and Descartes disagreed with him.
• Darwin’s proposal of natural selection added to the debate. He believed that evolution also applied to behaviors, causing psychologists to question the similarities between humans 

Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis: 

• There are many levels of analysis on why this occur. The many perspectives come together to conclude that everything is related 
• The levels of analysis come together to form a biopsychosocial approach that focuses on biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors
• Each level by itself is incomplete and has its own limits 
• Working from different perspectives of psychology can help, but it does not reveal the whole picture of psychology 

Psychology’s Subfields: 

• Some psychologists conduct basic research in order to build psychology’s knowledge base
• They can explore the links between the brain and mind, experiment with how we solve problems, study influences on learning, and more 
• Some psychologists conduct applied research and face practical problems.
• Many try to help workplace morale and productivity
• Others help people face marriage problems, anxiety and depression, or how to better raise their children
• Some psychologists work to better the social and physical environment so that it is healthy for all
• Psychology has helped influence modern culture because it grows knowledge. The more we know the better we can understand the world around us

Module 3: Careers in Psychology 

Basic Research Subfields: 

• Cognitive psychologists deal with the topics of perception, language, attention, problem solving, memory, intelligent, etc.
  • They use computer based models to identify correlations in cognition
  • They can work as a professor, industrial consultant, or a specialist in an educational setting 
• Developmental psychologists study age related behaviors and changes. They apply this research onto educational, child-care, and other related settings 
  • They study the developmental aspects of biological, psychological, cognitive, and social.
  • Most specialize in a certain stage in life and often work in educational settings 
• Educational psychologists study the process of learning. They study the relationship between learning and the environment
  • They also develop ways to enhance the learning and teaching process 
  • They are often employed by schools and sometimes even the government 
• Experimental psychologists study the behavioral processes of humans and animals 
  • Most work in a particular subfield and often work in academic settings where they teach courses
  • They can also be employed at zoos, businesses, and government agencies
• Psychometric and quantitative psychologists study the methods used to gain psychological knowledge 
  • They can work on updating personality tests or creating new ones 
  • They can also interpret tests that have been completed 
  • To be a quantitative psychologist you need to understand statistics and computer technology
  • Most find jobs and universities, testing companies, and government agencies 
• Social psychologists research human interactions with one another 
  • They study how our personal attitudes, feelings, and behaviors affect and are affected by those around us
  • They cover topics like prejudice, leadership, and aggression. They also focus on group and personal settings 
  • The large majority are employed at colleges and universities
  • But some work for hospitals or other agencies 

Applied Research Subfields: 

• Forensic psychologists use psychology for legal issues 
  • They create public policies relating to mental health 
  • They can also consult on jury selection and the deliberation process 
  • Many have studied other areas of psychology and some who work in this field have law degrees 
  • Some areas of employment are colleges, law schools, mental health agencies, law enforcement agencies, and courts
• Health psychologists try to promote health and prevent diseases 
  • They can help people live healthier lives by designing programs that stop smoking, improve sleep, and help with weight loss 
  • They can also work with the government to improve policies and the health care system 
  • They work at hospitals, medical schools, rehabilitation centers, public health agencies, and colleges
• Industrial-organizational psychologists study the relationship between people and their work environments 
  • They try to develop ways to increase productivity and promote job satisfaction 
  • They can conduct workplace training and can help with personal selection 
  • Many work for businesses, the government, or are self-employed consultants 
• Neuropsychologists study the structure and function of the nervous system and it’s relationship with behavior 
  • They assess and diagnose disorders such as Alzheimer’s 
  • They can also evaluate for head injuries
  • Many also diagnose for different areas of the autism spectrum or ADHD
  • Many work in academic settings where they can conduct research. But many work in hospitals 
• Rehabilitation psychologists work with those who have lost function after an accident or illness 
  • Most work in medical rehabilitation centers or hospitals 
• School psychologists focus of children in educational settings 
  • They treat cognitive, social, as well as emotional problems that have a negative impact on a child’s learning 
  • They can work individually with students or with a larger group 
  • They work together with teachers and parents to improve student learning 
  • This job finds employment in educational settings, government agencies, behavioral research labs, or child guidance centers
• Sport psychologists focus on the factors that influence sport/physical activities 
  • They can work with either the coaches or athletes.
  • They can teach the coaches how to work better with athletes.
  • They can also teach athletes how to improve their performances 
  • They can also help athletes who suffer from substance abuse
  • Some work in the field with different teams, but others conduct research in academic settings

The Helping Professions: 

• Clinical psychologists try to promote health for individuals and groups 
  • Some specialize in certain psychological disorders while others can help with multiple 
  • Clinical psychologists can conduct research, teaching, and assessment 
  • They can work at private practices, mental health organizations, schools, legal systems, government agencies, military services, and universities 
  • To become a clinical psychologist, a doctorate is needed. The APA offers standards for the graduate programs, and recognition is offered to those who meet the requirements 
  • Clinical psychologists who chose to work at an independent practice must gain a license in order to offer testing and therapy 
• Community psychologists focus on the broad mental health problems in the community 
  • They strongly believe human behavior is influenced and affected by the interactions between people and their environments 
  • They focus on crisis intervention while specifically paying attention to minorities in the community 
  • Many community psychologists work with public health departments in order to carry out their work 
  • Work settings include federal, state, or local mental health departments. They can also work in other health service settings or for government agencies. They also have the option of work at a university 
• Counseling psychologists offer help to those in life transitions or lifestyle changes 
  • Their work is similar to that of a clinical psychologist, but they deal with more adjustment problems 
  • They can conduct therapy and assessments on both individuals and groups 
  • They focus on a clients strengths, allowing the client to cope during the transition 
  • Many can work in academic settings, mental health centers, businesses, or private practices 
  • For counseling psychologists that want to start an independent practice, they must get a state license 

Word Bank

Empiricism: the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation 

Structuralism: early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Functionalism: early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Experimental psychology: the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

Behaviorism: the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Humanistic psychology: a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

Cognitive neuroscience: the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Psychology: the science of behavior and mental processes

Nature-Nurture issue: the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

Natural selection: the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Levels of analysis: the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

Biopsychological approach: an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Behavioral psychology: the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Biological psychology: the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists)

 Cognitive psychology: the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Evolutionary psychology: the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Psychodynamic psychology: a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Social-cultural psychology: the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Psychometrics: the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Basic research: pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Developmental psychology: a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Educational psychology: the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

Personality psychology: the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Social psychology: the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Applied research: scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology: the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Human factors psychology: an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

Counseling psychology: a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Clinical psychology: a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry: a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

Positive psychology: the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Community psychology: a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups