Final Exam Notes!

Chapter13_Book

Memory and Learning Overview

• Memory is crucial for learning and human individuality.

• Henry Molaison's case (Patient H.M.) provides insights into memory's mechanisms and importance.

Key Concepts

Memory Definition

• Ability to:

  • Learn and neurally encode information.

  • Consolidate information for long-term storage.

  • Retrieve/reactivate consolidated information later.

Types of Memory

• Declarative Memory: Facts or information accessible to consciousness (e.g., memories we can declare).

• Nondeclarative Memory: Skills and tasks learned through performing (e.g., riding a bike).

  • Also known as procedural memory.

Amnesia Types

1. Retrograde Amnesia: Difficulty retrieving memories formed before an event (e.g., surgery).

2. Anterograde Amnesia: Difficulty forming new memories after an event.

Henry Molaison's Case Study

• Suffered severe anterograde amnesia after surgery to treat epilepsy.

• Surgery removed most of the medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus.

• Could not form lasting new memories post-surgery, despite intact old memories.

• Demonstrated a distinction between short-term and long-term memory.

Memory Formation Process

1. Encoding: Initial learning of information.

2. Consolidation: Transforming short-term memories into long-term ones; requires the hippocampus.

3. Retrieval: Accessing and using stored information from long-term memory.

Memory Stages

• Sensory Buffer: Very brief storage of sensory information.

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Duration of seconds to minutes, easily disrupted without rehearsal.

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Enduring memories lasting days to years, subject to potential distortion during recall and reconsolidation.

Brain Structures Involved in Memory

• Hippocampus: Essential for forming long-term declarative memories.

• Amygdala and Mammillary Bodies: Important for the emotional aspects of memories; damage can affect memory.

• Cerebral Cortex: Stores long-term memories, including general knowledge and experiences.

• Various brain regions contribute to specific types of memory, such as spatial learning and procedural memory.

Neuroplasticity and Memory

• Neuroplasticity: Neural changes in response to experience that influence learning and memory.

• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A stable increase in synaptic transmission efficiency following repetitive stimulation, believed to be a cellular mechanism for memory.

• LTP relies on:

  • NMDA receptors: Work with AMPA receptors to facilitate memory formation.

Environmental Effects on Memory Development

• Enriched environments can enhance brain structure and function, improving learning outcomes.

  • E.g., Increased synaptic connections and enhanced dendritic branching observed in animals from enriched settings.

Types of Nondeclarative Memory

1. Skill Learning: Procedural memory development, such as mirror tracing.

2. Priming: Improvement in processing stimuli due to previous exposure.

3. Associative Learning: Involves conditioning while including both classical conditioning (e.g., Pavlov's experiments) and instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning).

Emotional Influence on Memory

• Emotionally charged events are remembered more vividly due to biochemical changes influenced by neurotransmitters like epinephrine acting on the amygdala.

• Medications (like propranolol) show potential for altering the emotional impact of certain memories, especially in PTSD.

Conclusion

• Memory, integral to learning and individuality, is complex, encompassing various forms, mechanisms, and neural networks. Henry Molaison’s case exemplifies the fragility of memory and its profound significance to identity and human experience.

Chapter13_PPT

LEARNING & MEMORY OVERVIEW

• Core Concepts

  • Learning: The process of acquiring information.

  • Memory: The ability to store and retrieve information.

CASE STUDY: PATIENT H.M.

• Background: Henry Gustav Molaison suffered from severe epilepsy due to a bicycle accident. At age 27, he underwent surgery to remove parts of his brain.

  • Surgery: Bilateral medial temporal lobectomy, removing medial portions of both temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and surrounding cortex.

SURGERY RESULTS

• Immediate Effects:

  • General convulsions eliminated.

  • Reduced frequency of partial seizures.

  • Decreased use of anti-convulsant medication.

  • No change in perceptual or motor abilities; slight intelligence increase.

AMNESIA AND MEMORY IMPAIRMENT

• Consequences of Surgery: Severe memory impairment with both retrograde and anterograde amnesia.

  • Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories formed before the injury. Mild retrograde amnesia noted; limited memory of events from 2 years prior to surgery.

  • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories post-injury. Short-term memory remains intact; can hold new info momentarily if attended to (e.g., digit-span task).

MEMORY TYPES

• Declarative Memory (Explicit): Memory of facts and autobiographical information. Classified into:

  • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences.

  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts.

• Non-declarative Memory (Implicit): Skills and conditioned responses, can operate without awareness.

  • Procedural Memory: Skill learning, doesn’t require the medial temporal lobe; relies on basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex.

  • Priming: Changes in perception influenced by previous exposure to similar stimuli, linked to reduced activation in specialized brain areas such as the occipitotemporal cortex.

  • Associative Learning: Learning relationships between events; includes classical and instrumental conditioning.

NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY EXAMPLES

• Classical Conditioning: Requires cerebellum, not hippocampus.

  • Involves unconditioned (US, UR) and conditioned stimuli (CS) with responses (CR).

• Instrumental Conditioning: Learning actions yield certain consequences, not tied to specific brain regions.

MEMORY TESTING AND IMPLICATIONS

• Various memory tests, such as the mirror drawing task and incomplete pictures task, show patient H.M.’s preserved implicit memory despite declarative memory deficits.

• Important: Ensuring awareness of sensory modalities in memory tests is crucial. Some patients display global amnesia, while others do not.

SCIENTIFIC INSIGHTS FROM H.M.

• Findings illustrate that memory functions are not uniformly distributed in the brain. The medial temporal lobe plays a vital role in memory consolidation, with distinct processes for short-term vs. long-term memory.

ANIMAL MODELS OF MEMORY

• Studying animal models like monkeys and rats has shown that damage to the hippocampus and related areas disrupts recognition memory, informing our understanding of memory processing in humans.

COMPONENTS OF MEMORY

• Memory Stages:

  • Sensory Buffers: Brief glimpses of memory.

  • Short-Term Memory (STM): Active attention span temporarily holding information (working memory).

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Durable storage of information post-attention.

MEMORY PROCESSES

• Encoding: Inputting information into STM.

• Consolidation: Transferring information from STM to LTM.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information back into working memory.

NEUROPLASTICITY

• Changes in synapse structure and function underpin learning and memory. This includes mechanisms for enhancing or diminishing synaptic responses.

  • Neuroplasticity involves structural alterations like synapse formation, increased dendritic branches, and cellular changes due to experiences.

SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY & MEMORY

• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A stable, long-lasting enhancement in synaptic transmission linked to memory formation, showing parallels with memory retention processes.

  • Role of Glutamate: Acts as a neurotransmitter crucial for LTP, highlighting importance in synaptic enhancements during memory formation.

MEMORY STORAGE STRATEGIES

• Memories stored across various brain regions participate in the original experience, making them resilient to localized brain damage. Key Brain Areas:

  • Inferotemporal Cortex: Visual patterns.

  • Amygdala: Emotional significance.

  • Prefrontal Cortex: Tasks with sequential responses.

  • Cerebellum: Motor skills.

  • Striatum: Stimuli-response relationships.

This overview synthesizes key insights on learning and memory processes, particularly through the lens of H.M.'s case study and broader neuropsychological research on memory systems and mechanisms.

Chapter13_Audio pt.1

Definitions of Learning and Memory

• Learning: The process of acquiring information that results in structural changes in the brain such as synapses and circuitry.

• Memory: The ability to store and retrieve information.

Relationship between Learning and Memory

• Learning and memory are interconnected; you assess learning by probing someone's memory for information.

• Most aspects of existence, including languages, skills, and cultural practices, are learned behaviors.

Case Study of Henry Molaison (H.M.)

• Background: Born in 1926; suffered from severe seizures caused by an accident leading to brain surgery in 1953.

• Surgery: H.M. underwent a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy, removing parts of the medial temporal lobe (including the hippocampus and amygdala), which successfully reduced seizures but led to significant memory issues.

• Post-surgery effects:

  • Seizures controlled: General convulsions eliminated, partial seizures decreased.

  • Memory deficits: Experienced both retrograde (loss of memories prior to surgery) and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new long-term memories).

  • Retrograde Amnesia: Mild; retained major memories from childhood but lost memories from the two years preceding the surgery.

  • Anterograde Amnesia: Severe; unable to form new memories after the surgery.

  • Short-term memory intact: Could repeat numbers immediately but failed to retain those numbers long-term after distraction.

  • Cognition: IQ increased slightly post-surgery, indicating no change in intelligence despite severe memory deficits.

Implications of H.M.’s Case

• Memory Structure: Provided crucial insights into the function of different types of memory and the brain regions associated with them.

• Types of Memory:

  • Declarative Memory (Explicit): Facts and knowledge that can be consciously recalled.

  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge without recollection of where or when learned.

  • Episodic Memory: Specific events and experiences, contextual information regarding "when" and "where".

  • Non-declarative Memory (Implicit): Skills and actions, like procedural tasks (e.g., riding a bike) which do not require conscious thought.

Findings by Brenda Milner

• Studied H.M. and discovered longer-lasting effects of memory types.

• Declarations: Found distinctions between short-term and long-term memories governed by different regions—hippocampus for consolidation and different areas for storage.

• Consolidation: H.M. could form initial impressions but couldn’t retain due to missing hippocampal function.

• Skill Learning: H.M. retained the ability to learn tasks through repetition even if he forgot performing them, showing the difference between procedural and declarative memory.

Memory Research Developments

• Language Processing: Memory for facts (semantic) and personal experiences (episodic) are distinct, but also intertwined.

• The ability for procedural memory remains intact despite declarative memory losses, allowing individuals to perform tasks without remembering having learned them.

• Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus, showcasing implicit memory capabilities.

Memory and Brain Regions

• Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia: Critical in procedural (implicit) memory; unaffected in H.M.’s case post-surgery.

• Hippocampus: Central to memory consolidation; removal leads to inability to transfer memories from short-term to long-term.

Key Notes on Different Types of Learning

• Associative Learning:

  • Classical Conditioning: Learning through associations; e.g., Pavlov's dogs.

  • Operant Conditioning: Learning through reinforcement, e.g., training pets or classroom behavior.

Implementing Memory Research

• Be mindful of sensory modalities used in tasks (visual, motor, verbal) alongside cognitive aspects for more effective memory assessments.

• Distinction between learned responses should guide interaction with those experiencing memory deficits.

Chapter13_Audio pt.2

Chapter Overview

• Focus on learning and memory processes.

• Discussion on memory systems focused on short-term and long-term memory.

• Importance of regions like the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe for memory consolidation.

Memory Storage and Types

• Memory is not localized to one area but distributed throughout the cortex.

• Two main types of memory:

  • Short-Term Memory (STM)

  • Lasts about 15-30 seconds unless rehearsed.

  • Working memory is a component of STM, allows manipulation of information.

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM)

  • Can last for years, no known limit for storage.

  • Different types:

    • Declarative (Explicit) Memory:

    • Can be verbally expressed. Further divided into:

      • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences.

      • Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts.

    • Non-Declarative (Implicit) Memory: Skills and tasks that cannot be easily verbalized.

Case Studies

• Case of H.M.:

  • Underwent medial temporal lobe surgery, affecting explicit memory but leaving implicit memory intact (e.g., skills).

  • Demonstrates separation of memory systems—highlighting hippocampus for consolidation.

Animal Models of Memory

• Delayed Non-Matching to Sample Test:

  • Used with monkeys and rats to study object recognition memory.

  • Performance significantly lower in those with medial temporal lobe damage.

• Different regions play unique roles:

  • Hippocampus: Important for spatial recognition.

  • Rhinal Cortex: Crucial for object recognition.

Neuroanatomy and Memory

• Hippocampus: Critical for consolidation and recalling memories.

• Amygdala: Involved in emotional aspects of memories.

• Frontal Cortex: Plays a role in working memory, decision-making processes.

Memory Processes

• Encoding: Input of sensory information into memory.

• Consolidation: Process of transferring information from STM to LTM.

• Retrieval: Bringing stored information back into working memory.

• The process of Reconsolidation updates already stored long-term memories.

  • Memories can change upon retrieval, making them susceptible to errors.

Neuroplasticity

• Brain's ability to adapt and change in response to experience.

• Structural and functional changes in neurons (e.g., synapses) occur through learning.

• Evidence from studies on rats indicates environment enrichments lead to better outcomes in learning and memory.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

• A mechanism for synaptic strengthening contributing to long-term memory.

• Occurs through repeated activation of synapses leading to enhanced synaptic responsiveness.

• Hebbian Plasticity: "Cells that fire together wire together"; repeated coactivation leads to stronger connections.

• Key neurotransmitter involved: Glutamate, affecting NMDA and AMPA receptors, allowing calcium influx for memory enhancement.

Conclusion

• Memory is a complex process involving multiple brain structures and systems.

• Continuous learning from experience leads to neuroplastic changes, memory storage, and retrieval capabilities.

Questions/Tips for Study

• Focus on distinguishing between short-term and long-term memory processes.

• Understand the roles of specific brain regions in different types of memory.

• Be prepared to explain concepts like reconsolidation and neuroplasticity with examples.

• Clarify concepts related to synaptic plasticity and how they relate to learning.

Chapter14_Book

Attention and Perception

• Introduction to Attention

  • Definition: Attention (or selective attention) refers to the process of focusing on specific stimuli, enhancing their processing.

  • Historical Insight: William James (1890) described attention as the mind's ability to concentrate on one of several possible objects or thoughts, involving a withdrawal from others.

• Case Study: Parminder

  • Background: Parminder, whose family has a history of heart-related illnesses, suffered bilateral strokes that affected the parietal lobes.

  • Symptoms: Post-strokes, she could only perceive one object at a time (simultagnosia). For example, she could not simultaneously recognize her husband's face and glasses.

  • Perception Issue: This illustrates the limitations of attention in processing visual stimuli.

• Types of Attention

  • Selective Attention: Choosing specific stimuli for detailed processing.

  • Vigilance: General level of alertness and readiness to respond.

  • Overt Attention: Attention aligns with sensory orientation (looking and attending to the same object).

  • Example: Watching a football game and analyzing plays.

  • Covert Attention: Focus can shift without changing where one's gaze is directed, like sneaking glances at peripheral stimuli.

  • Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on one conversation amidst noise; demonstrates the filtering nature of attention.

• Attention Processes

  • Shifts focus from one stimulus to another, acting as a filtering mechanism.

  • Consequences of Attention: Attention enhances perception but has limitations due to the nature of cognitive resources used.

• Limitations of Attention

  • Attention is a limited resource, which can cause inattentional blindness.

  • Inattentional blindness: Failure to notice unexpected items when focused on another task.

  • Studies show that even experts can overlook obvious cues (e.g., a gorilla in a video).

  • Divided Attention: Difficulty in processing multiple stimuli, particularly when they require the same resources (e.g., looking at two different things).

• Theories on Attention

  • Early Selection Model: Filters out unattended stimuli early in processing.

  • Late Selection Model: Unattended stimuli may get processed to some extent before being filtered out.

  • Perceptual Load: The complexity of a stimulus affects attentional resources; high complexity leads to early filtering.

• Types of Attention Studies

  • Voluntary Attention (Endogenous): Consciously directed; studied through cuing tasks (e.g., Posner's task).

  • Reflexive Attention (Exogenous): Involuntary capture of attention through sudden changes in the stimulus.

  • Inhibition of Return: A phenomenon where attention does not return to a location that was previously cued, typically after a delay.

• Visual Search

  • Feature Search: Quick identification based on a single attribute (e.g., finding a red dot amongst blue dots).

  • Conjunction Search: Slower and requires attention to multiple features (e.g., identifying a specific colored shape in a mixed array).

• Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) in Attention

  • N1 and P1 effects: ERP components that indicate attentional processing; larger when stimuli are attended to compared to ignored ones.

  • Visual Attention: Enhanced P1 for attended stimuli in cuing tasks, illustrating the efficiency of attention in visual processing.

• Cortical and Subcortical Mechanisms

  • Dorsal Frontoparietal Network: Governs voluntary attention; involves areas like the intraparietal sulcus.

  • Right Temporoparietal Junction: Involved in reflexive attention toward unexpected stimuli.

• Disorders of Attention

  • Hemispatial Neglect: Condition where individuals ignore stimuli on one side, typically due to right hemisphere lesions.

  • Balint’s Syndrome: Characterized by simultagnosia and difficulty with visually guided movements due to bilateral parietal damage.

  • Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A disorder associated with impaired sustained attention, impulsivity, and variability in attention patterns, treated often with stimulants.

• Consciousness and Decision Making

  • Consciousness is closely tied to attention and decision-making processes, often impacted by frontal lobe functions.

  • Free Will: The notion that our consciousness influences decision-making, despite evidence suggesting unconscious brain activity precedes conscious decisions.

• Summary

  • Attention plays a critical role in perception and interaction with the world, affecting cognitive functions and neural activity. Mechanisms of attention not only help focus our cognitive resources but also shape our conscious experiences and decisions.

Chapter14_PPT

What is Attention?

• Definition by William James (1890):

  • "Everyone knows what attention is…

  • Taking possession by the mind of one out of several possible objects or trains of thought.

  • Focalization, concentration, and withdrawal from other stimuli are essential to attention.

• Attention allows for effective dealing with stimuli while filtering out others.

Selective Attention

• Process of focusing on one or more stimuli for enhanced processing and analysis.

• Examples:

  • A dog watching a leaf.

  • Listening to a lecture.

• Vigilance is a global level of alertness, scanning the environment for relevant stimuli.

Covert vs. Overt Attention

• Overt Attention:

  • Focus coincides with sensory orientation (attending to what is being looked at).

• Covert Attention:

  • Focus can be directed independently of sensory orientation (e.g., attending to one thing while looking at another).

Cocktail Party Effect

• Phenomenon of selective enhancement of attention to filter out distractors in noisy environments (e.g., parties or restaurants).

Attentional Bottleneck

• Attention serves as a filter to direct cognitive resources to what is most important.

• It raises the question of when this bottleneck occurs:

  • Early Selection Models:

  • Filter out unattended information right away, at the sensory input level.

  • Meaning not processed; filtering based on physical characteristics.

  • Late Selection Models:

  • All incoming stimuli processed for meaning before any selection for attention is made.

Testing the Limits of Our Attention

• Important concepts:

  • Shadowing Experiments

  • Inattentional Blindness

  • Change Blindness

  • Divided Attention

  • Perceptual Load

Shadowing Experiments

• Participants focus on one of two streams of stimuli (e.g., dichotic listening).

• Possible outcome:

  • Individuals may not report hearing their own name.

  • Referenced study: Cherry, 1953.

Inattentional Blindness

• Failure to perceive stimuli that are not actively attended to.

• Example: 80% of radiologists missed a gorilla in CT scans (Drew et al., 2013).

Change Blindness

• Failure to notice a change in a visual scene.

• Example videos can depict this phenomenon (links available).

Divided Attention

• Processing two or more stimuli simultaneously.

• Limited attention capacity; acts as a spotlight to help focus our cognitive resources and direct behavior.

Perceptual Load

• Refers to the processing demands of a task:

  • Easy Tasks:

  • Resources available to process task-irrelevant stimuli.

  • Difficult/Complex Tasks:

  • No extra resources available; irrelevant stimuli excluded immediately.

Categories of Attention

• Sustained Attention:

  • Attending to a stimulus/location for a prolonged period (e.g., problem-solving).

• Voluntary Attention:

  • Conscious, top-down process aligned with goals (endogenous).

• Reflexive Attention:

  • Involuntary, bottom-up process mediated by lower nervous system levels (exogenous).

Attention Aids in Search Processes

• Feature Search:

  • Search for a target based on a unique attribute.

• Conjunction Search:

  • Search based on a combination of features.

Why are Conjunction Searches Harder?

• Require more cognitive effort and time.

• Binding Problem:

  • Question of how the brain integrates various features processed by different regions into a single object.

Targets of Attention

• Selecting key stimuli from the environment to focus cognitive resources on.

Measuring Attention

• Cortical neuron activity synchronization when attending to a task.

• Methods include:

  • EEG (Electroencephalogram)

  • Event-Related Potentials (ERPs):

  • Averaged EEG recordings to measure brain responses to repeated stimuli.

Measuring ERPs

• EEGs recorded during tasks show variability across trials.

• By averaging results over many trials, random variations cancel out, revealing stable task-related components.

  • Negative voltages charted above zero line (N1, N2, etc.) and positive voltages below (P1, P2, etc.).

Patterns in Shifts of Attention

• Auditory stimuli and their effects on ERPs:

  • Predictable effects observed through shadowing experiments.

  • Larger negative N1 for attended stimuli, indicating selective attention effects on neural processing.

• P3 Effect:

  • Positive wave associated with memory, responses to surprises, and higher-order processing (meaning, language, identity of speaker).

Review Video Note

• Introduction

  • Challenge presented: Count yellow stars and red X's simultaneously.

  • Example of divided attention: difficulty in tracking multiple stimuli at once.

• Results of the Challenge

  • Participants may have counted: 15 yellow stars and 13 red X's (plus a smiley face).

  • Highlights the limitations of attention.

• Understanding Attention as a Limited Resource

  • Concentration typically occurs on one stimulus at the exclusion of others.

  • Engaging in divided attention leads to task switching, not simultaneous processing.

  • Selecting between tasks employs selective attention.

  • Analogy: Selective attention as a flashlight beam focusing on specific stimuli while others are dimmed.

• Types of Attention Cues

  • Exogenous Cues

  • External stimuli capturing attention without conscious effort.

  • Examples: Bright colors, loud noises (causing moments of diversion).

  • Pop-out Effect: Salient visuals stand out (e.g., a yellow circle among green circles).

  • Endogenous Cues

  • Internal learned cues that require intention and understanding.

  • Example: An arrow only makes sense if one understands its indication.

• Cocktail Party Effect

  • Ability to focus on one voice within a noisy environment.

  • Example: Hearing one’s name among many conversations draws attention (endogenous cue due to knowledge of the significance of one's name).

• Inattentional Blindness

  • Defined as missing stimuli in the visual field due to focus elsewhere.

  • Example: Missing the smiley face while counting other shapes.

• Change Blindness

  • Failing to notice changes in the environment.

  • Example: Noticing if your mother’s hairstyle has changed or rearranged furniture in a room.

  • Important distinction from inattentional blindness:

  • Inattentional blindness: Missing something visible.

  • Change blindness: Missing differences between two states.

• Research Example

  • A study where people giving directions failed to notice a change in the researcher due to a large bookcase moving between them.

  • Demonstrates our limited attention and tendency to focus on a primary task at the expense of noticing changes in the environment.

Chapter14_Audio pt.1

Attention Lecture Overview

• Definition of Attention: Attention involves focusing on particular stimuli to process information effectively.

  • William James' definition highlights that attention is about focusing on one out of several possible objects or thought processes, necessitating withdrawal from others.

• Types of Attention:

  • Selective Attention: Focusing on one or more stimuli for advanced processing, allowing for better information processing in challenging environments.

  • Vigilance: A general state of readiness to respond to important stimuli.

• Attention Distinction: Overt vs. Covert Attention

  • Overt Attention: Directly looking at the object of focus (e.g., gazing at a dog).

  • Covert Attention: Looking at one thing while actually focusing on something else, often in peripheral vision.

Cocktail Party Effect

• Describes how selective attention allows us to understand a friend's voice over background noise, demonstrating the ability to filter stimuli based on relevance.

Attentional Bottleneck

• Concept: Attention acts as a filter, narrowing focus where only significant information gets processed.

• Early vs. Late Selection Models

  • Early Selection Models: Suggest that filtering occurs before meanings are processed (e.g., filtering based on sensory input).

  • Late Selection Models: Propose that all incoming information is initially processed for meaning before any filtering occurs.

Measurement of Attention

• Shadowing Experiments: Techniques to test selective attention, demonstrating the difficulty in processing simultaneous auditory stimuli. Participants often can only report details from one channel while ignoring the other.

• Inattentional Blindness: Noting significant features (like an unexpected 'gorilla' in scans) when focused on another task; highlights that we do not perceive information we aren't actively attending to.

• Change Blindness: The phenomenon where people fail to notice changes in a visual scene, demonstrating gaps in our visual perception.

• Divided Attention: The challenge of processing two or more stimuli simultaneously, showing that we often switch back and forth rather than truly multitask.

Search Types in Attention

• Feature Searches: Easier, where one unique attribute (e.g., color) helps identify a target among distractors.

• Conjunction Searches: More complex, requiring attention to multiple features (e.g., color and shape), demonstrating cognitive load differences.

• Binding Problem: Discusses how our brains combine features to create coherent perceptions of objects, emphasizing the complexity of attention processes when faced with multiple stimuli.

• Visual Search Examples: Talks through examples, including finding Waldo, emphasizing cognitive effort differences in conjunction vs. feature searches through the binding problem.

• Concluding Thoughts: Attention is a limited resource that can be easily overwhelmed, indicating the importance of understanding its limitations in various environments, including educational settings.

Chapter14_PPT pt2

Brain Regions Involved in Attention

Brain Regions Responsible for Shifts in Attention

• Superior Colliculus

  • Controls eye movement toward objects of attention.

  • Helps direct covert attention.

• Pulvinar Nucleus

  • Located in the posterior region of the thalamus.

  • Important for orienting, shifting attention, and inhibiting stimuli.

  • More distractors lead to greater activation of this region.

Generating and Directing Attention

• Two major pathways involved in selecting and shifting attention:

  • Dorsal Frontoparietal Pathway:

  • Involves top-down (voluntary) attention.

  • Right Temporoparietal Pathway:

  • Involves bottom-up (reflexive) attention.

Dorsal Frontoparietal Pathway: Top-Down Control (Voluntary)

• Intraparietal Sulcus (IPS)

  • Neurons increase firing rate when attention is directed towards specific stimuli (visual or auditory).

  • Plays a critical role in steering attention.

  • Damage here makes voluntary shifts of attention difficult.

• Frontal Eye Field (FEF)

  • Damage results in inability to ignore distractors in the periphery.

  • Crucial for directing gaze towards stimuli based on cognitive goals (top-down processing).

Right Temporoparietal Pathway: Bottom-Up Control (Reflexive)

• Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ)

  • Located at the intersection of the temporal and parietal lobes in the right hemisphere.

  • Directs attention towards new or unexpected stimuli (e.g., flashes, color changes).

  • Neural activity spikes in this region regardless of where the stimuli occur in the visual field.

  • Receives direct input from the visual cortex.

Brain Disorders & Attention

Hemispatial Neglect

• A condition where individuals ignore stimuli on the left side of their midline.

• Patients typically have normal vision but may neglect people and objects on the affected side.

• Associated with lesions in the frontoparietal attention network.

Bálint’s Syndrome

• Characterized by bilateral damage to the parietal lobe.

• Symptoms include:

  • Oculomotor Apraxia: Difficulty directing visual gaze horizontally.

  • Optic Ataxia: Inability to reach for objects using visual cues.

  • Simultagnosia: Inability to perceive more than one object or feature simultaneously.

Consciousness

Attention and Consciousness

• What is Consciousness?

  • According to William James, "My experience is what I agree to attend to. Only those items of which I notice shape my mind - without selective interest, experience is an utter chaos."

• Definition of Consciousness:

  • The state of being aware of our own conscious experiences and the perception of our thoughts and surroundings.

• Brain Regions Implicated:

  • Default Mode Network: Active during quiet introspective thought, involving frontal, parietal, and temporal regions.

  • Claustrum: A sheet of neurons in the forebrain, lateral to the basal ganglia.

Elements of Consciousness

• Theory of Mind: Understanding that others have their own beliefs, knowledge, and desires.

• Mirror Recognition: Recognition of the self as depicted in the mirror.

• Imitation: The ability to copy others' actions, significant for empathy and self-awareness.

More Elements of Consciousness

• Empathy & Emotion: Imagining the feelings of others.

• Tool Use: Utilizing objects to achieve specific goals.

• Language: Employing a system of arbitrary symbols to convey information with specific meanings and grammar.

• Metacognition: The ability to think about one's own thinking processes.

Planning and Monitoring Behavior

• Executive Functions: Higher-level cognitive processes that control and organize thoughts, behaviors, and feelings. Functions include:

  • Task switching

  • Working memory

  • Inhibition of thoughts/behaviors

  • Thought suppression

  • Monitoring ongoing performance.

• Delay of Gratification: An example of the executive function process.

• Important Brain Region: Prefrontal cortex, relevant to working memory and task switching.

Review Video Note pt.2

Overview of Hemispatial Neglect

• Definition: Hemispatial neglect is a neurological condition where individuals completely neglect one side of their world, leading to unawareness of surrounding stimuli on that side.

• Common Cause: Typically occurs after strokes or brain injuries affecting specific areas of the brain.

• Prevalence: Considered relatively common among neurological conditions.

Effects of Hemispatial Neglect

• Daily Activities:

  • Individuals may apply makeup to only one side of their face.

  • They often read only from one side of a newspaper.

  • Neglect may extend to not noticing people approaching from the neglected side.

• Memory Impact:

  • Research indicates that patients can describe features of familiar places, but these descriptions often ignore the neglected side.

  • In a study, patients described the right side of a public square but failed to recall details from the left side until asked to visualize the location from a different perspective.

Clinical Testing for Neglect

• Common Test:

  • A well-known assessment involves asking patients to draw the face of an analogue clock, where neglect often results in numbers clustering on one side.

• Processing Information: Studies show that despite the lack of awareness, neglected information can still influence behavior in decision-making tasks.

Neurological Basis

• Affected Brain Areas: Hemispatial neglect is linked to damage in the inferior parietal lobule of the parietal lobe, which plays a crucial role in spatial attention.

• Left vs. Right Hemisphere:

  • Neglect predominantly affects awareness of the left side due to damage in the right parietal lobe, which controls attention to both sides.

  • Patients with left hemisphere damage generally recover faster and without intervention.

Theories of Attention Management

• Spatial Awareness: Both parietal lobes contribute to spatial awareness, but they have different specializations:

  • The left parietal lobe: Primarily processes language and may prioritize right-side awareness due to limited capacity.

  • The right parietal lobe: Monitors spatial awareness bilaterally, but is less redundant when damaged.

• Alertness Connection:

  • Research links attention and alertness; as individuals begin to sleep, they may also neglect the left side, showing a connection between brain activity during alertness and hemispatial neglect.

• Hypotheses on Suppression: As people drift to sleep, the left side of the body may suppress right hemisphere activity, which could lead to left side neglect.

Implications for Understanding the Brain

• Everyday Experience: The condition illustrates how the brain maintains a cohesive experience of the world, balancing awareness of different stimuli.

• Research Opportunities: Cases of hemispatial neglect offer a unique opportunity to study how we perceive and interact with our environment, highlighting gaps in current scientific understanding.

Conclusion

• Ongoing Research: There is still much to learn about hemispatial neglect and the brain's complex functions in managing attention and awareness.

• Acknowledgments: Special thanks to supporters for helping to promote science education.

Chapter14_Audio pt.2

• Attention and EEG

  • Neuronal synchronization during task completion can be measured by EEG (Electroencephalography).

  • EEG outputs can appear sporadic due to constant environmental influences on neural activity.

  • Multiple EEG sessions can be averaged to provide clearer event-related potentials (ERPs).

  • ERPs are typically faster than MRI scans.

• Graphical Representation of EEG

  • Averaged EEG exhibits clearer task-related activities, with negative voltages represented at the top of graphs, and positive voltages at the bottom.

• Shadowing Task

  • Involves attention to one message while ignoring another in a dual-message condition.

  • Predictable ERP effect seen with distinct positive and negative waves after stimulus onset (P1 and N1).

• Attentional Neglect in Auditory Processing

  • Larger N1 wave observed for attended stimuli compared to unattended stimuli, indicating selective attention assists in processing.

• P3 Wave

  • The P3 wave associated with higher cognitive functioning occurs about 300 ms after stimulus presentation—linked to memory processing and unexpected events.

• Brain Structures Relevant to Attention

  • Superior Colliculus: Important for visual stimuli and eye movement directing.

  • Thalamus: Assists in orienting and shifting attention.

• Dorsal Frontoparietal Pathway

  • Handles voluntary attention (top-down) through components like the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) and frontal eye field (FEF).

  • These areas are crucial for directing attention to specific stimuli and ignoring distractors.

• Right Temporoparietal Pathway

  • Involved in reflexive attention (bottom-up), particularly to unexpected stimuli.

  • The temporal-parietal junction (TPJ) is crucial for directing attention regardless of stimulus location in visual fields.

• Hemispatial Neglect

  • Results from right hemisphere lesions, leading to a disregard of the left side of visual space despite intact vision.

  • Individuals may fail to notice objects or people on their left, or may ignore the left side when drawing a clock.

  • Awareness can still occur, but behavioral disregard is evident.

• Balint's Syndrome

  • Results from bilateral parietal lobe damage, characterized by:

  • Oculomotor apraxia: Inability to move eyes independently toward stimuli.

  • Optic ataxia: Difficulty reaching for objects using visual cues.

  • Simultagnosia: Ability to only recognize one object at a time.

• Consciousness

  • Defined as the state of being aware of one’s own existence and surroundings.

  • Components involve perception of time, memory, future behavior predictions, and the notion of free will.

• Default Mode Network

  • Active during introspective thinking and daydreaming; encompasses regions in the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.

  • Shuts down when focusing on external tasks.

• Theory of Mind

  • Understanding that others have different beliefs and knowledge, identifiable through tasks like the Sally-Anne test, which reveals a child's ability to recognize differing perspectives.

• Mirror Recognition

  • Ability to recognize oneself in a mirror, evident at about 18 months of age.

• Imitation and Other Consciousness Elements

  • Important for empathy and social learning.

  • Other elements include emotional awareness, tool use, language use, and metacognition (thinking about one’s own thoughts).

• Executive Functioning

  • Encompasses higher-level processing and control, enabling goal-directed behavior and task switching.

  • Associated with the prefrontal cortex and involves concepts such as delayed gratification, where small immediate rewards are sacrificed for larger future gains.

Chapter12_Book

Howard Dully's Case

• Biographical Background:

  • Howard Dully was diagnosed with schizophrenia at the age of 12.

  • His biological mother passed away when he was 4, leading to his father's remarriage to Lucille.

  • Howard had a difficult relationship with his stepmother, which included rebellious behavior typical of adolescence (e.g., breaking curfew).

• Psychiatric Intervention:

  • Dully was brought to six different psychiatrists, all concluding his behavior was normal.

  • Walter Freeman, the seventh psychiatrist, diagnosed him with schizophrenia and performed a lobotomy in 1960.

• Lobotomy Procedure:

  • The procedure involved administering electro-shock therapy for sedation, followed by using an ice-pick-like tool to alter Howard's brain.

  • This procedure disconnects parts of the prefrontal cortex, which are linked to decision-making and emotional regulation.

  • The total cost of the lobotomy was approximately $200.

• Post-Procedure Effects:

  • Family members described Howard's condition post-surgery as lethargic and zombie-like, leading to long-term institutionalization.

  • At age 50, Dully discovered his traumatic history and recounts his journey in his memoir "My Lobotomy".

Understanding Psychopathology

• Prevalence of Mental Illness:

  • Schizophrenia affects about 1% of the population globally.

  • The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 is utilized to diagnose psychiatric disorders.

  • Major depressive disorders show variable prevalence globally, affecting millions at some point in their lives.

• Impact of Mental Disorders:

  • Mental illnesses like schizophrenia impose significant emotional and economic burdens on affected individuals and society.

  • Up to 50% of individuals report psychiatric symptoms at some point.

Key Concepts in Schizophrenia

• Symptoms of Schizophrenia:

  • Positive Symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking.

  • Negative Symptoms: Lack of emotional expression, social withdrawal, and impoverished thought processes.

  • Cognitive Impairment: Problems with memory, attention, and decision-making.

• Genetic and Environmental Influences:

  • Genetic studies indicate a hereditary component, with higher rates of schizophrenia among relatives of affected individuals.

  • Environmental stressors, such as prenatal complications and urban living, increase the risk.

  • Impact of Stress:

  • City living is associated with a higher occurrence of schizophrenia compared to rural areas, emphasizing the role of environmental stress.

Biological Underpinnings of Schizophrenia

• Brain Abnormalities:

  • Enlarged lateral ventricles are commonly observed in individuals with schizophrenia, indicating the loss of brain tissue.

  • Abnormalities in the frontal lobes contribute to dysfunctional cognitive processes associated with the disorder.

• Dopamine Hypothesis:

  • Antipsychotic medications primarily target dopamine D2 receptors, suggesting a correlation between dopaminergic activity and schizophrenia.

• Antipsychotic Medications:

  • Traditional antipsychotics block dopamine receptors effectively but can cause side effects like tardive dyskinesia.

  • Newer atypical antipsychotics target multiple neurotransmitters, including serotonin, and are generally favored for their efficacy with fewer movement-related side effects.

Mood Disorders: Depression and Bipolar Disorder

• Depression:

  • Characterized by prolonged feelings of sadness, loss of interest, changes in sleep and appetite, and suicidal ideation.

  • Strong genetic components exist, alongside environmental influences.

  • Treatment primarily involves SSRIs and cognitive behavioral therapy; however, the efficacy of SSRIs has been questioned.

• Bipolar Disorder:

  • Defined by alternating periods of depression and mania.

  • Treatment often includes lithium for stabilization, alongside therapy.

Anxiety Disorders

• Types of Disorders:

  • Includes phobias, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder.

  • High genetic susceptibility noted, especially related to the amygdala's functioning.

• Treatment Approaches:

  • Benzodiazepines serve as commonly prescribed anxiolytics, affecting GABA receptor systems to reduce anxiety.

  • SSRIs can also be effective; they boost serotonin availability.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Symptoms:

  • Involves persistent obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive actions).

  • Commonly treated with SSRIs which enhance serotonin at synapses, and cognitive behavioral therapy.

• Mechanisms:

  • Dysfunction of serotonin systems significantly contributes to OCD symptoms.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• Description:

  • Involves re-experiencing traumatic events, leading to intrusive memories and heightened anxiety.

  • Genetic predisposition significantly factors into susceptibility.

• Neurobiological Findings:

  • Changes in the structure and function of the hippocampus are often noted.

  • Hormonal factors, including cortisol regulation, also play a role in the disorder’s persistence.

• Treatment Options:

  • Cognitive behavioral therapy, SSRIs, and exposure therapy are common methods used to mitigate PTSD symptoms.

Chapter12_PPT pt.1

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

MENTAL DISORDERS

• Defined as a persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behavior, thoughts, or emotions leading to significant distress or impairment.

• Impacts daily functioning

• Diagnosed primarily based on behavioral symptoms.

• DSM-5-TR: Current manual for diagnosing psychiatric illness.

• Prevalence:

  • ~12% of the global population experiences a mental disorder.

  • This rate is approximately 20% in North America.

  • Gender differences exist in certain disorders.

  • Many disorders manifest during adolescence or early adulthood.

THE DSM-V

• Lists criteria necessary for diagnosing mental disorders.

• About 50% of Americans will experience at least one mental disorder in their lifetime.

• Comorbidity: The co-occurrence of two or more disorders; approximately 80% of those with a mental disorder report comorbidity.

• Common disorders include anxiety, mood disorders, impulse-control, and substance abuse disorders.

• Cultural factors influence experiences and expressions of mental disorders.

THE MEDICAL MODEL

• Views abnormal psychological experiences as illnesses with biological and environmental causes, identifiable symptoms, and possible treatments.

  • Diagnosis: Establishes the illness type.

  • Signs: Objective indicators of a disorder.

  • Symptoms: Subjective reports of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.

DANGERS OF LABELING

• Labels can lead to negative stigma, implying danger or harmfulness associated with mental disorders.

• Approximately 60% of individuals do not seek treatment due to stigma.

• Education alone may not effectively reduce stigma.

• Individuals with mental disorders are not statistically more violent than the general population.

• Stigmatization may impact self-perception, leading to feelings of helplessness, which can hinder recovery.

• Preferred terminology: "Individual with Schizophrenia" instead of "schizophrenic."

SCHIZOPHRENIA

• Characterized by:

  • Positive Symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thoughts/speech, excited motor behavior.

  • Negative Symptoms: Flat affect, anhedonia, emotional and motivational deficits.

  • Cognitive Symptoms: Memory issues, attention difficulties, impaired social cognition.

HERITABILITY OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

• Caused by both genetic and environmental factors, but no singular causative gene has been identified.

• Adoption Studies: Show that children adopted by non-biological parents have a higher incidence of schizophrenia if their biological parents had it.

• Twin Studies: Concordance rates are 50% for monozygotic twins and 17% for dizygotic twins indicating genetic influence.

FACTORS RELATED TO DIAGNOSIS

• Advanced paternal age, stress exposure, urban living (increased risk due to pollutants and overcrowding), prenatal stress, infections during pregnancy, and atypical prenatal conditions contribute to diagnosis likelihood.

BRAIN CHANGES IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

• Ventricular Changes: Enlarged lateral ventricles linked to loss of brain tissue.

• Cortical Abnormalities: Thinning of cortical gray matter, altered corpus callosum structure/function, hypofrontality (underactivity in frontal cortex linked to reduced synaptic density).

TREATMENT OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

• First Generation Antipsychotics: Dopamine antagonists that target D2 receptors, primarily alleviating positive symptoms (e.g., Chlorpromazine, Haloperidol). Side effects include motor dysfunction.

• Second Generation Antipsychotics: Aim to reduce motor side effects and target multiple neurotransmitter receptors (e.g., Clozapine, Risperidone). May contribute to weight gain.

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Helps to manage stress and reduce symptom flare-ups.

FUTURE AREAS FOR RESEARCH

• Investigating substances like Phencyclidine (PCP) that induce schizophrenia-like symptoms; supports glutamate hypothesis focusing on neurotransmission issues in schizophrenia.

MOOD DISORDERS

• Depression: A persistent low mood and/or anhedonia lasting two weeks or more, often accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, lethargy, and disturbances in sleep and appetite.

• Prevalence: Affects over 7% of Americans annually; more common in women, particularly those above age 40.

INHERITANCE OF DEPRESSION

• Concordance Rates: ~40% for monozygotic twins and ~20% for dizygotic twins, indicating strong genetic links.

• No specific gene has been identified; depression likely results from complex gene-environment interactions.

BRAIN REGIONS AFFECTED BY DEPRESSION

• Increased activity in the amygdala and frontal lobes during emotional processing tasks but decreased activation in the parietal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. Decreased hippocampal volume observed in studies.

TREATMENTS FOR DEPRESSION

• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Induces seizures by delivering electrical shocks; used as a last resort due to memory and physical side effects.

• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: Noninvasive method with fewer side effects than ECT.

• Deep Brain Stimulation: Combines electrical stimulation with psychosurgery for severe cases.

DRUG TREATMENT OPTIONS

• Monoamine Hypothesis: Depression linked to insufficient activity at monoamine synapses.

• Antidepressants:

  • For instance, MAOIs and tricyclic antidepressants enhance monoamine levels.

  • SSRIs (e.g., Prozac, Paxil) focus particularly on increasing serotonin availability.

  • SNRIs target both serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibition.

  • Ketamine: Provides rapid relief as a glutamate receptor antagonist.

THERAPY

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Effective for correcting negative thought patterns with lower relapse rates compared to SSRIs; beneficial when combined with medication.

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MOOD DISORDERS

• Women are twice as likely to experience depression; possible reasons include help-seeking behaviors and hormonal differences.

• Postpartum depression is especially prevalent and often responds well to CBT.

SLEEP AND DEPRESSION

• Common difficulties with sleep onset and maintenance; reduction in stage 3 sleep noted with an increase in lighter sleep stages.

BIPOLAR DISORDER

• Characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression.

• Manic Episodes: Include symptoms like grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, and impulsivity.

• Similar neurological signatures to Schizophrenia with alterations in ventricle size and brain structure.

• Bipolar disorder has a hereditary component stemming from multiple genetic influences and environmental triggers.

TREATMENT FOR BIPOLAR DISORDER

• Lithium: Mainstay treatment with a narrow therapeutic window; monitored closely for efficacy and side effects.

• CBT: Helpful for managing symptoms.

Chapter12_Audio pt. 1

Psychopathology Overview

• Definition of Mental Disorders: Persistent disturbances in behavior, thoughts, or emotions that cause significant distress or impairment in daily functioning.

• Diagnosis: Based on behavioral symptoms rather than physiological measurements.

• Classification System: DSM-5 is the current standard for diagnosing mental disorders.

Prevalence of Mental Disorders

• Approximately 12% of individuals worldwide deal with mental disorders at any given time.

• In North America, this percentage is higher, approximately 20%.

• Gender Differences:

  • Depression and anxiety are more common in women.

  • Substance use disorders (e.g., alcohol use disorder) are more common in men.

Mental Disorder Statistics

• About 50% of Americans experience at least one mental disorder at some point.

• Roughly 80% report experiencing a comorbid disorder (another disorder alongside the first).

• Common comorbid disorders include:

  • Anxiety with mood disorders (e.g., depression).

  • Impulse control disorders with substance use disorders.

• Cultural Impacts: Cultural factors can influence how disorders are discussed and experienced.

Medical Model of Mental Disorders

• Examines mental disorders as illnesses with biological and environmental causes.

• Diagnosis: Based on signs (objectively observed indicators) and symptoms (subjective feelings reported by the individual).

Stigma and Treatment Seeking

• Negative stigma attached to mental disorders (e.g., labeled as dangerous) discourages individuals from seeking treatment.

• Approximately 60% do not seek treatment due to stigma.

• Importance of using person-first language, such as "individuals with schizophrenia" instead of "schizophrenic."

Schizophrenia

• Characteristics: Positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms.

• Positive Symptoms: Abnormal states gained (e.g., hallucinations, delusions, disorganized behavior).

• Negative Symptoms: Reduction in typical functioning (e.g., lack of emotional expression, anhedonia).

• Cognitive Symptoms: Difficulties in memory, attention, decision making, and social cognition.

Treatment for Schizophrenia

• Early 1900s: Treatment often included prefrontal lobotomies.

• 1950s: Introduction of the first drug, chlorpromazine, to eliminate positive symptoms.

• Typical Antipsychotics: D2 receptor antagonists lead to the Dopamine Hypothesis (excess dopamine causes schizophrenia).

• Long-term Risks: Risk of tardive dyskinesia from prolonged use of typical antipsychotics.

• Atypical Antipsychotics: More effective with fewer motor symptoms; affect different neurotransmitter systems (e.g., serotonin).

Brain Changes in Schizophrenia

• Ventricular Changes: Enlarged lateral ventricles correlated with the DISC1 gene in mouse models.

• Cortical Thinning: Related to synaptic changes in gray matter.

• Structural Changes: Changes in the corpus callosum, amygdala, and hippocampus observed in affected individuals.

Genetic Factors

• Heritability: Strong genetic link; higher risk in relatives of diagnosed individuals.

• Adoption Studies: Help disentangle environmental from genetic influences.

• Twin Studies: Higher concordance rates in monozygotic twins for schizophrenia compared to dizygotic twins.

Other Factors Impacting Schizophrenia

• Advanced Paternal Age: Increases risk for schizophrenia.

• Stress: Higher stress during life transitions (e.g., moving, starting college) can trigger episodes.

• Urban Living: Associated with higher risk due to environmental factors.

• Prenatal Stress: Infections during pregnancy can affect the likelihood of future diagnosis.

Depression

• Major Depressive Disorder: Characterized by persistent low mood, loss of interest, and changes in sleep and appetite.

• More common in women and older adults.

• Prevalence: 7% of Americans experience major depressive disorder each year.

Genetic Factors in Depression

• Concordance Rates: 40% in identical twins vs. 20% in fraternal twins.

• Likely a mix of genetic predisposition and environmental influences.

Treatment Options for Depression

• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Induces seizures to 'reset' brain activity; less common today.

• Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS): Alters neural activity without invasive procedures.

• Medication:

  • Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) prevent monoamine breakdown, leaving more in the synapse.

  • SSRIs block serotonin reuptake (e.g., Prozac).

  • SNRIs block reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine (e.g., Cymbalta).

• CBT is effective for breaking cycles of negative thinking and best combined with medication.

Chapter12_PPT pt.2

ANXIETY DISORDERS

• Class of mental disorders where anxiety is the predominant feature.

• Included in the DSM-5-TR, encompassing three main categories:

  • Phobic disorders

  • Panic disorder

  • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

PHOBIC DISORDERS

• Definition: Characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations.

• Typically irrational but interfere with daily functioning.

• Categories:

  • Animals

  • Natural environments

  • Situations (e.g., heights, public places)

  • Blood/injections/injury

  • Other (e.g., loud noises)

• Social Phobia: Irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed.

PANIC DISORDER

• Definition: Sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that result in an overwhelming sense of terror.

• Symptoms:

  • Shortness of breath

  • Heart palpitations

  • Sweating

  • Dizziness

  • Feelings of depersonalization

• Some individuals mistake panic attacks for heart attacks.

• Agoraphobia: The fear of public places, resulting in avoidance of situations where panic attacks might occur.

GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER (GAD)

• Definition: Chronic excessive worry that occurs alongside three or more of the following symptoms:

  • Restlessness

  • Fatigue

  • Concentration problems

  • Irritability

  • Muscle tension

  • Sleep disturbances

NEUROBIOLOGY OF ANXIETY DISORDERS

• Strong genetic component present, leading to predispositions for developing anxiety disorders.

• Key neurological areas involved:

  • Left hemisphere, temporal lobe abnormalities

  • Amygdala and related circuitry are implicated in anxiety disorders.

ANXIOLYTICS: DRUGS FOR ANXIETY

• Classes of drugs:

  • Benzodiazepines:

  • Examples include : Diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan).

  • Mechanism: Bind to GABA receptors, increasing hyperpolarization in postsynaptic cells, which reduces neuronal excitability.

  • Beneficial for preventing seizures and treating insomnia.

  • Other medications include SSRIs and SNRIs.

POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)

• Definition: Characterized by chronic physiological arousal, recurrent intrusive thoughts or images of a traumatic event, and avoidance of triggers related to the trauma.

• Often precipitated by stressful situations or reminders of trauma, with soldiers being a common demographic affected.

• Approximately 7% of Americans are estimated to experience PTSD at some point.

PTSD NEUROBIOLOGY

• Evidence for a heritable component to PTSD; incidence rates are higher in monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic twins.

• Neurological changes associated with PTSD:

  • Role of the hippocampus:

  • Right hippocampus tends to be smaller in individuals with PTSD, which may predispose them to the disorder under stress.

  • Symptoms may include amnesia, flashbacks, and deficits in short-term memory (STM).

TREATMENT FOR PTSD

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): effective in treating PTSD by gradually exposing individuals to triggering stimuli. Possible integration of virtual reality exposure therapy.

• Combination with medications that block stress hormones, or unique therapies involving MDMA (Ecstasy).

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD)

• Definition: Characterized by repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety caused by those thoughts.

• Symptoms often manifest in childhood but typically peak at ages 25-44.

  • Obsessions: Intrusive thoughts causing anxiety.

  • Compulsions: Behaviors performed to alleviate this anxiety.

BRAIN CHANGES IN OCD

• Individuals with OCD have structural and functional changes in areas including:

  • Prefrontal cortex

  • Cingulate cortex

  • Basal ganglia

  • Insula

• There is a genetic component involved, particularly associated with genes that influence serotonin signaling. Infections may also trigger symptoms.

TREATMENT OPTIONS FOR OCD

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): standard treatment method.

• Medications that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin:

  • Examples include Fluoxetine (Prozac) and Fluvoxamine (Luvox).

• OCD is often comorbid with depression, which complicates treatment as both disorders may be treated with similar medications targeting different regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC).

Chapter12_Audio pt.2

• Chronic Behavioral Therapy

  • Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) helps change thought patterns to break negative cycles affecting mood and behavior.

  • Example: Negative thoughts about social interactions lead to avoidance, reinforcing feelings of worthlessness.

• Gender Differences in Depression

  • Women are twice as likely to experience major depressive disorder compared to men.

  • Possible explanations: hormonal factors (e.g., menstrual cycles, pregnancy, menopause) and differing help-seeking behaviors.

  • Men might not seek help as often, but that is not the sole reason for discrepancy in diagnosis rates.

• Sleep and Depression

  • Sleep disruptions in depression include insomnia or hypersomnia.

  • Reduction in slow-wave sleep (stage 3) and increased REM sleep density that occurs earlier in the night.

• Bipolar Disorder

  • Characterized by cyclical patterns of depressive and manic episodes.

  • Depressive episodes can last for weeks/months, while manic episodes are shorter (about a week).

  • Symptoms of mania include grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, racing thoughts, distractibility, and risky behaviors.

  • Diagnosis often misplaced as schizophrenia due to symptom overlap; treatment varies from antipsychotics to CBT.

• Incidence and Onset

  • Affect men and women equally; earlier onset compared to major depression.

  • Environmental factors and genetic predisposition interact to influence the development of the disorder.

• Neurobiology of Bipolar Disorder

  • Enlarged ventricles and reduced volume in the amygdala, hippocampus, and frontal cortex observed.

  • Psychological treatment options include lithium and CBT.

• Anxiety Disorders

  • Include phobias, panic disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).

  • Phobic disorders involve persistent excessive fear, potentially irrational.

  • Categories: animals, environments, situations (e.g., social phobia).

• Panic Disorder

  • Defined by recurrent panic attacks and fear of subsequent attacks; can lead to agoraphobia.

  • Symptoms may include shortness of breath, heart palpitations, sweating, etc.

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

  • Chronic excessive worry with symptoms like restlessness, fatigue, irritability, and sleep problems.

• Neurobiology of Anxiety

  • Strong genetic components; differences present in the amygdala and related circuits.

  • Treatments include benzodiazepines for symptoms and SSRIs/SNRIs for underlying causes.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

  • Characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) aimed at alleviating anxiety.

  • Types of obsessions: germs, harm, symmetry; compulsions may include washing hands, checking locks, etc.

• Treatment for OCD

  • Response to cognitive behavioral therapy and serotonin reuptake inhibitors.

  • Comorbidity with depression is common.

• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

  • Chronic arousal and reactions triggered by traumatic memories, common in soldiers and first responders.

  • Symptoms: flashbacks, avoidance of triggers, and memory deficits possibly related to hippocampal volume.

• Treatment for PTSD

  • Includes CBT, exposure therapy, and sometimes MDMA to relieve symptoms.

Activity 11 Q & A

1. Thomas seems as though he is watching his brother playing on the playground in front of him. His attention resources are being devoted to the squirrel in his left visual field searching for food. This is an example of ________

• Reflexive attention

2. Elizabeth hides pebbles in a can that some mints came in. When Elizabeth's grandma comes over, Elizabeth asks her grandma what she thinks is in the mint can. Elizabeth's grandma says, "mints, of course!" Elizabeth laughs and says, "I fooled you!" Based on this interaction, it can be determined that Elizabeth has developed:

   Question 2 options:

   empathy

   theory of mind

   imitation

   metacognition

• theory of mind.

3. José is participating in an experiment where he listens to two different messages at the same time, one in each ear. He is asked to repeat back the message in his right ear. José is participating in what type of experiment?

   Question 3 options:

   shadowing

   divided attention

   conjunction

   perceptual load

• shadowing

4. Bilateral lesions of the _________ disrupts performance on spatial recognition tasks in rats, such as the Radial Arm Maze.

   Question 4 options:

   temporal lobe

   hippocampus

   amygdala

   prefrontal cortex

• hippocampus

5. Which of the following has NOT been shown to be an effect of an enriched environment in rats?

   Question 5 options:

   more dendritic branches

   enhanced recovery from brain damage

   weaker cortical synapses

   thicker cortex

• weaker cortical synapses

6. Which of the following regions is NOT affected by a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy?

   Question 6 options:

   rhinal cortex

   optic chiasm

   hippocampus

   amygdala

• optic chiasm

7. Subjectively reported behaviors, thoughts, and emotions related to a disorder.

   Question 7 options:

   habenulae

   symptoms

   dyskinesia

   signs

• symptoms

8. Which of the following is NOT an appropriate treatment for depression?

   Question 8 options:

   lithium

   ketamine

   tricyclics

   monoamine oxidase inhibitors

• lithium

9. Benzodiazepines bind to ________ receptors and cause _________.

   Question 9 options:

   glutamate; hyperpolarization

   glutamate; depolarization

   GABA; depolarization

   GABA; hyperpolarization

• GABA; hyperpolarization

10. Hallucinations and delusions are an example of which type of symptoms of schizophrenia?

    Question 10 options:

    negative

    cognitive

    neural

    positive

• positive