In-Depth Notes on Learning and Conditioning

Chapter Overview

• Learning: A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

• Conditioning: Learning associations between events in an organism's environment.

Forms of Learning

• Non-Associative Learning:

  • Habituation: Gradual decrease of response due to repeated exposure to a non-threatening stimulus.

  • Example: Ignoring a continuous sound.

  • Sensitization: Enhanced response to a repeated painful stimulus.

  • Example: Increased response to pain after multiple exposures.

• Associative Learning:

  • Classical Conditioning: Associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

  • Operant Conditioning: Learning based on the consequences of behavior.

  • Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.

  • Insight Learning: Sudden realization of problems or concepts.

Habituation

• Defined as the CNS receiving a message but choosing to ignore it.

• Important to differentiate between habituation and fatigue or sensory adaptation, which are temporary responses.

Sensitization

• Contrast to habituation, involves an increased response to stimuli that may signal danger.

• Example: Repeated rubbing causing discomfort illustrates sensitization to touch.

Classical Conditioning

• Key Terms:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response.

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that has been conditioned to elicit a response.

  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): An unlearned, natural response to a UCS.

  • Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Pavlov’s Experiment

• Pre-conditioning: UCS (food) elicited UCR (salivation).

• Conditioning Phase: Pairing a NS (bell) with UCS (food).

• Post-conditioning: NS becomes CS, now eliciting CR (salivation).

Sequence of Classical Conditioning

1. Before Conditioning: UCS → UCR (food → salivation)

2. During Conditioning: NS paired with UCS

3. After Conditioning: CS → CR (bell → salivation)

Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning

• Forward vs. Backward Conditioning: Forward (CS before UCS) is more effective than backward (UCS before CS).

• Timing: Ideal interval for pairing is within 0.5 seconds.

Real-world Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Preferences, emotional reactions, or conditioned responses in advertising.

• Classical conditioning used in therapeutic settings (e.g., desensitization).

Operant Conditioning

• Founded on Thorndike's Law of Effect: Responses followed by satisfaction are likely to recur.

• B.F. Skinner’s Principles: Focus on reinforcement and consequences of behavior.

Key Components of Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement: Consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior. Can be:

  • Primary Reinforcers: Satisfy biological needs.

  • Secondary Reinforcers: Conditioned to increase behaviors.

• Schedules of Reinforcement:

  • Continuous: Reinforcement after every response.

  • Intermittent: Reinforcement after a random number of responses or time intervals (fixed/variable).

Extinction in Operant Conditioning

• Removal of reinforcement leads to decline in behavior.

• Behaviors learned under variable reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.

Observational Learning

• Albert Bandura: Emphasized learning by observing the consequences of others' actions.

  • Example: Bobo doll experiment demonstrating imitation of aggressive behavior.

Other Types of Learning

• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without reinforcement, demonstrated through cognitive maps (Tolman).

• Insight Learning: Sudden realization and problem-solving (Kohler).

Summary of Differences in Learning Types

• Classical Conditioning: Involuntary, responses are elicited, and the learner isn’t aware of the learning.

• Operant Conditioning: Voluntary, responses are emitted, and the learner is aware of the learning process.