Approaches

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how these are affected by internal and external factors. Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world, following a systematic mythology based on evidence.

Origins of Pyschology

KEY PSYCHOLOGIST: WUNDT

Features of Science

Objective: Scientists’ expectations or bias should not affect their recordings.

Replicable: Chance results are always a possibility, so to demonstrate the validity of a finding it must be repeated. It is therefore important that scientists record their methods carefully.

Systematic: Research should be carried out according to a plan, in an efficient and thorough manner.

Controlled: Varying one factor (IV) and measuring its effect on another (DV) allows casual conclusions to be drawn, if all other factors are constant.

Empirical: Information must be gained through direct observation/experimentation as opposed to reasoned argument or belief. It must be evidence based.

Quantification: Scientists collect data that can be analysed and statistically tested for.

Origin of Psychology

Evidence as early as 5000 BC shows that people understood that the brain was important. Understanding behaviour and the brain has been an interest for thousands of years, dating back to Ancient Greeks such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

In the 17th century, French philosopher Rene Descartes proposed the idea of dualism - that the mind and the body were separate by when they interact they form the ‘human experience.’ The interactions produce different behaviours and thoughts, this formed the basis for the nature versus nurture debate.

However, psychology did not emerge as its own discipline until the mid-to-late 1800s. The beginning of modern psychology is consider to be when Wilhelm Wundt opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology in Germany in 1879. Wundt is often regarded as the father of psychology. This was important as he was the first person to separate psychology from philosophy by analysing workings of the mind in a structured way, with an emphasis on being objective, measurement and control.

Wundt argued that mental states could be scientifically studied using introspection - the process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional states. Introspective ability enables people to observe their inner world. Wundt isolated conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images, in a process called structuralism. His method of data recording was highly scientific, the same stimulus, physical surroundings and instructions were given to each person.

Skinner disagreed with the subjective nature of introspection, in which the findings differed greatly from individual to individual, making it difficult to establish general laws and unifying principles of behaviour and cognition. In the 1930s, Skinner’s idea of radical behaviourism was tested using a laboratory experiment method. This allowed for the objective measurement of observable behaviour, providing reliable data through controlling and eliminating the effects of extraneous and confounding variables, by using highly controlled conditions.

Behaviourist

Learning Approach: Behaviourism

KEY PSYCHOLOGISTS: SKINNER AND PAVLOV

It is argued that humans are born as a blank slate and that everything people become and how they behave is due to learning through the environment. The behaviourist approach suggests that all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning. From a behaviourist perspective, the basic laws governing learning are the same across both non-human and humans. Therefore, non-human animals can replace humans in behaviourist experimental research.

Conditioning

Behaviours are learnt by responding to stimuli in our environment. This is done through association and reinforcement - reward or punishment.

Classical Conditioning: learning through associations made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus.

1. The Unconditioned Stimulus produces the Unconditioned Response

2. The Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with the UCS producing an UCR

3. An association is made between the UCS and the NS

4. The Neutral Stimulus becomes the Conditioned Stimulus producing the Conditioned Response.

Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned to salivate upon hearing a bell. However, extinction occurs when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS, so the conditioned response becomes extinct/disappears. Generalisation occurs when slight changes in the conditioned stimulus, such as different pitches of the bell used in Pavlov’s experiment, still produces the same conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning: learning where behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observed behaviour being repeated, whilst punishment decreases this likelihood.

Reinforcement

1. Positive Reinforcement refers to being rewarded for a desirable behaviour to increase the likelihood of it.

2. Negative Reinforcement refers to performing an action to avoid something unpleasant happening in the future, eg detention.

Punishment

1. Positive Punishment refers to adding something negative to decrease the likelihood of an undesirable behaviour.

2. Negative Punishment refers to removing something to decrease the likelihood of an undesirable behaviour.

Skinner demonstrated the mechanics of operant conditioning using a rat in a box. Positive reinforcement shown when the rats pressed down on a lever and received food as a reward. Negative reinforcement was shown when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock.

Social Learning Theory

Learning Approach: Social Learning Theory

KEY PSYCHOLOGIST: BANDURA

THE BRIDGE BETWEEN BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH AND COGNITIVE APPROACH

Social Learning Theory suggests that learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning, but also indirectly through observation and imitation. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when learns observe role models receiving positive or negative reinforcement for a behaviour. This reinforces the behaviour in the learner without them directly experiencing the consequences themselves.

• Imitation: indirect learning of a behaviour through observing and copying the behaviour with no direct consequences.

• Identification: the process by which an observer relates to a role model and aspires to become more like them.

• Modelling: Individuals that are observed are role models, their behaviour is imitated even if they are not physically present but are seen in the media.

• Mediational Processes: cognitive processes which intervene between stimulus and response. Attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.

  • Attention: the extent to which people notice certain behaviours. The longer attention is on the model the better people learn.

  • Retention: the ability to store information.

  • Motor Reproduction: The ability to perform the behaviour, putting it into practice.

  • Motivation: for observational learning to be successful there needs to be the will to imitate the behaviour.

Bandura tested 36 boys and 36 girls aged 3 to 6 in a laboratory experiment to observe the effect of vicarious reinforcement. There were three experimental groups - an aggressive model, non-aggressive model, and no model at all. The children were then put in a room for 20 minutes with a Bobo Doll, their behaviour with the doll was observed and recorded. To test the inter-rater reliability, 51 of the children were rated by two observers independently and their ratings compared; these ratings showed a correlation of r=0.89.

Bandura found that the children who observed the aggressive model made significantly more aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups. Boy imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls.

Cognitive

The cognitive approach is the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. It argues that scientific study of internal mental processes can and should be done. However, these processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, therefore cognitive psychologists formulate conclusions of their workings, through making inferences based upon observable behaviours.

Theoretical Models

• Theoretical models are representations of the internal processes. These models are often displayed as boxes and arrows that indicate cause and effect.

• This information processing approach shows information flowing through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval like a computer.

• The development of the computer was significant for the cognitive approach as it provided an analogy for different mental processes. Both contained a series of 3 processes; input, the use of a processor and the production of a comprehensible output. Long-term memory can be compared to the hard disk, and short-term memory can be viewed as the computers Random Access Memory (RAM).

• The multi-store model is an example of a theoretical model.

Internal Mental Processes: Operations that occur in the mind, but can be studied scientifically. Also known as meditational processes, they occur between the stimulus and the response.

Inference: A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning, drawing conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of specific observations.

Information Processing Approach: Comparing the human brain to a computer. It is theorised that the brain works in a set sequence.

Schema

• A pattern of thought or behaviour that organises categories of information and the relationship among them. They are generated through experience, becoming more sophisticated through time.

• They act as mental frameworks, providing mental ‘shortcuts’ so that large volumes of data can be processed quickly and efficiently.

• However, since schemas are ‘pre-conceived’ they may lead to perceptual distortions, or stereotypes.

• Schemas can be event, role, object or self based.

  • Event Schemas are frameworks of the expectations for specific events, how to act in certain places and situations.

  • Role Schemas invoke knowledge about how people are supposed to behave based on their roles in social situations. Eg how a waiter should act, how a parent should be.

  • Object Schemas helps to interpret inanimate objects, how they function, or what one can expect from them.

  • Self Schemas is knowledge one gains about themselves by interacting with the natural world and other humans.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The scientific field concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes. Neuroimaging techniques such as PET and fMRI scans allow psychologists to understand how the brain supports cognitive activities and emotions by showing which parts are active in certain circumstances.

Biological

The Biological Approach assumes all human behaviour has a biological origin, this means that the mind ‘lives’ in within the brain and is not separate. To fully understand human behaviour, it is necessary to understand internal biological structures and processes, including genes, the nervous system and neurochemistry. It emerged in the 1980’s, became the dominant scientific perspective in psychology, and gained prominence due to advancements in brain scanning technology.

Localisation of Brain Functions

Different functions and behaviours are controlled by different parts of the brain, this is localisation.

The reptilian brain controls the body’s most vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, body temperature and balance. It is also responsible for key emotions, and contains the brainstem and the cerebellum. Located at the back, the cerebellum is responsible for movement.

The limbic brain can record memories of behaviours that produced agreeable and disagreeable experiences, it is therefore responsible for emotions. The main structures are the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus.

The neocortex is the two large cerebral hemispheres that are responsible for the development of human language, abstract thought, imagination, and consciousness. The neocortex is what has enabled human cultures to develop.

The cerebral cortex is the folded outer surface of the brain and is divided into lobes which each have different higher order functions. The optical love causes our visual functioning; the parietal lobe processes sensory information; the temporal lobe is the centre for memory; and the frontal lobe is essential for our language, thinking and decision making.

Neurotransmitters

Neurons send electrical signals via a chemical messenger called a neurotransmitter from the axon to the dendrite. The neurotransmitters in the vesicles are released into a small gap called the synapse, they pass from the pre-synaptic nerve ending to the post-synaptic receptor in order for messages to passed around the neural network and cause the complex range of behaviours and emotions.

Genotype and Phenotype

Genes carry information in DNA which are like instructions for eye colour, intelligence, etc. A genotype is the genetic makeup whereas a person’s phenotype is the expression of their genes which leads to observable characteristics. The phenotype is influenced by both genetic inheritance and the interaction of this with the environment.

Much research into genetics has used monozygotic (MZ) twins who share 100% of DNA. For example, research has found that MZ twins have an increased concordance rate of developing schizophrenia compared to dizygotic (DZ) twins. This suggests that there is a genetic component to illnesses like schizophrenia.

Concordance Rate: is a measure that describes the proportion of twins that share an attribute given one individual already has the attribute.

Natural Selection is the process by which some characteristics are passed on over others. A desirable characteristic is more likely to survive than an undesirable one like slow running. Adaptive refers to traits or behaviours that enhance organisms’ survival, reproduction and fitness within a specific environment.

Pyschodynamic

KEY PSYCHOLOGIST: SIGMUND FREUD

The psychodynamic approach is most closely associated with the work of Freud who emphasised the influence of the unconscious which has significant influence on our behaviour and personality. He adopted the use of psychic determinism - the idea that all behaviour is caused by unconscious internal conflicts over which we have no control- which helped him to develop person-centred therapy (psychoanalysis). The unconscious also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed. His main theories included the levels of consciousness and the psycho-sexual stages of child development.

Freud’s theories have been heavily criticised for lacking falsifiability because they were hard to test scientifically.

Levels of Consciousness

• The conscious mind: what one is aware of doing, eg doing homework.

• The Preconscious mind: what one could be aware of if attention is turned to it, eg breathing.

• The Unconscious mind: the inaccessible mind which drives human behaviour, eg dreaming.

Freud viewed the personality as made up of three components: the Id, the ego, and the superego.

1. The Id is the primal desires and operates on the pleasure principle - it constantly demands satisfaction. Formed when humans are born, it is often violent, irrational and driven by basic desires.

2. The Ego forms the rational part of human personality and operates on the reality principle. The ego helps resolve conflicts between the Id and the Superego by using defence mechanisms. It develops during the first 18 months to 3 years old and is rational, logical, and allows the Id to be satisfied in a controlled manner.

3. The Superego develops around 4 years old, the end of the phallic stage, and operates on the morality principle. This contains the child’s internalised sense of right and wrong, high morals and expectations of one’s own personality.

The Psychosexual Stages

This theory is extremely controversial as Freud suggests that sexual energy is present right from birth, an uncomfortable idea. Freud believed that as a child developed there are 5 stages of unconscious desires where different body parts are particularly sensitive.

1. The Oral Stage

   From birth until 1 year old, the libido (the sexual energy) is centred in the mouth and satisfaction comes from sucking and biting. As a consequence if this is met, in adulthood there will be an oral fixation either from frustration or over stimulation. For example, smoking or overeating.

2. The Anal Stage

   From 1 to 3 years old, the libido is focused on the anus seen in toilet training. The consequence as an adult is being stubborn and tight-fisted with money, messiness and orderliness.

3. The Phallic Stage

   From 3 to 6, the child becomes more interested in genitals, this is the most crucial sexual conflict. Consequences include erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear.

4. The Latency Stage

   The most sable stage occurs from 6 through to puberty as the balance of morals develops. Energy is channeled into new skills and there are no consequences.

5. The Genital Stage

   The final stage from puberty to adulthood, is a time of sexual experimentation, resulting in a loving heterosexual relationship if all stages were successful.

Defence Mechanisms

Defence mechanisms protect humans from feelings of anxiety or guilt when the Id or Superego becomes too demanding. These operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings. These include: Repression - keeping disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious; Denial - blocking external events from awareness, the refusal to accept a situation and experience it; Displacement - satisfying an impulse with a substitute object.

Humanistic

KEY PSYCHOLOGIST: MASLOW AND ROGERS 3

The Humanistic Approach argues that human beings are essentially self-determining and have free will. Humans are ‘masters’ of their own development therefore all other influences of internal and external factors can be ignored. Humanistic psychologists tend to reject scientific approaches that try to establish general laws or principles of human behaviour because humans are active agents. Instead, it is argued that psychology should be concerned with subjective experiences and be person-centred.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The hierarchy of needs is the representation of the human self and its full potential. At the top is self-actualisation and the bottom are the physiological basic needs such as food, water, warmth and rest.

The Self, Congruence and Conditions of Worth

Carl Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved, an individual’s concept of self needs to be in congruence with (broadly equivalent to) their ideal self. If there is too big of a gap then the person will experience incongruence and not be able to reach self-actualisation. Rogerian person-centred therapy aims to reduce the gap between the self and ideal self.

According to Rogers and Maslow, issues in adulthood including low self-esteem arise from childhood experiences and a lack of unconditional positive regard. For example, imposing conditions of worth like “I will only be proud of you if you achieve top grades” shows a lack of unconditional positive regard. Rogers saw patients as ‘experts’ on their conditions, and that with counselling people would be able to solve their own problems.

Revision

Behaviourist

• Tabula Rasa - blank slate

• humans respond to stimuli in their environment

  • conditioning

• animals can be generalised to humans

SLT

• vicarious reinforcement

  • respond to stimuli from people

• Mediational processes

  • stimuli → mediation → response

  • link to cognitive

  • ARRM (Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation)

Cognitive

• internal mental processes

  • PALM (Perception, Attention, Language, Memory)

  • Inferences made

• Schema

• Theoretical/Computer models

  • Mind is compared to a computer models

Biological

• Biology influences psychological thoughts and feelings

• Localisation of brain function

• Neurotransmitters

• Genes

  • Evolutionary processes

• Phenotype vs Geneotype

Psychodynamic

• Triparte personality

  • Id, ego, superego

  • link to forensics

• Psychosexual stages

• Unconscious processes

  • Iceberg

• Defence mechanisms

  • repression, denial

  • balances superego and id

  • protect from unconscious

Humanist

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Roger’s client centred therapy

• Concept of self

  • ideal verus real

  • imbalance leads to incongruence

  • need for unconditional positive regard.