AP Euro Review Guide

Unit 1: Renaissance and Exploration 

(c. 1450–1648)

I. The Renaissance (c. 1450–1600)

A revival of classical learning and values from Greece and Rome that led to innovations in art, literature, politics, and science.

A. Characteristics of the Renaissance
  • Humanism: Focus on the study of classical texts, human potential, and achievements.

  • Secularism: Shift toward non-religious themes in art and thought.

  • Individualism: Emphasis on personal achievement and self-expression.

  • Civic Humanism: The idea that education should prepare leaders to participate in civic life.

B. Key Renaissance Figures
  • Petrarch (1304–1374) – "Father of Humanism"; rediscovered classical texts.

  • Machiavelli (1469–1527)The Prince; realpolitik, "the ends justify the means."

  • Erasmus (1466–1536)Praise of Folly; Christian humanist critical of Church corruption.

  • Thomas More (1478–1535)Utopia; critique of European political and economic systems.

  • Baldassare Castiglione (1478–1529)The Book of the Courtier; ideal Renaissance man.

C. Art and Architecture
  • Key Features: Use of perspective, proportion, realism, and human emotion.

  • Italian Renaissance (centered in Florence, supported by wealthy patrons like the Medici family):

    • Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)Mona Lisa, The Last Supper.

    • Michelangelo (1475–1564)David, Sistine Chapel ceiling, Pietà.

    • Raphael (1483–1520)School of Athens (depicts classical thinkers like Plato and Aristotle).

    • Brunelleschi (1377–1446) – Architect of Florence Cathedral’s dome.

  • Northern Renaissance (more religious, focused on social reform):

    • Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) – Woodcuts and engravings.

    • Jan van Eyck (1390–1441) – Mastery of oil painting (Arnolfini Portrait).

    • Hieronymus Bosch (1450–1516)The Garden of Earthly Delights (symbolic religious art).

D. Science and Technology Advancements
  • Printing Press (c. 1450) – Invented by Johannes Gutenberg, spread literacy and humanist ideas.

  • Heliocentric Theory – Proposed by Copernicus (1473–1543), later confirmed by Galileo (1564–1642).

II. The Age of Exploration (c. 1450–1648)

European nations expanded their influence overseas, driven by economic, religious, and political motivations.

A. Causes of Exploration
  • "Gold, God, and Glory" – Motivations for European expansion.

    • Gold – Desire for new trade routes and wealth.

    • God – Spread of Christianity (missionary work, Catholic and Protestant competition).

    • Glory – National prestige and personal fame.

  • Ottoman control of Constantinople (1453) disrupted European access to Eastern trade routes.

  • Renaissance curiosity encouraged knowledge-seeking and exploration.

B. Technological Advancements
  • Navigation Tools:

    • Magnetic Compass (China, spread to Europe).

    • Astrolabe (Arab invention, used for celestial navigation).

    • Portolan Maps (detailed coastal maps for sailing).

  • Shipbuilding Innovations:

    • Caravel – Faster, more maneuverable ships with triangular sails.

    • Carrack & Galleon – Larger ships for trade and military use.

  • Military Technology:

    • Gunpowder and Cannons – Enabled European dominance in naval warfare.







C. Major Explorers and Their Achievements


Explorer

Country

Achievement

Date

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portugal

Funded early exploration, established schools for navigation

1415–1460

Bartolomeu Dias

Portugal

Rounded the Cape of Good Hope (southern Africa)

1488

Christopher Columbus

Spain

Reached the Caribbean, beginning European colonization of the Americas

1492

Vasco da Gama

Portugal

Reached India, establishing direct trade

1498

Amerigo Vespucci

Spain/Portugal

Identified the New World as a separate continent

1501–1502

Ferdinand Magellan

Spain

Led first circumnavigation of the globe (killed in the Philippines)

1519–1522

Hernán Cortés

Spain

Conquered the Aztec Empire

1519–1521

Francisco Pizarro

Spain

Conquered the Inca Empire

1532–1533

Jacques Cartier

France

Explored Canada and the St. Lawrence River

1534

Henry Hudson

England/Dutch

Explored North America; Hudson River & Hudson Bay

1609–1611

D. Consequences of Exploration
  • Columbian Exchange (1492–1600s) – The transfer of crops, animals, diseases, and technology between the Old World and the New World.

    • From Old World to New World: Horses, cattle, pigs, wheat, smallpox, Christianity.

    • From New World to Old World: Corn, potatoes, tomatoes, chocolate, tobacco, syphilis.

  • Transatlantic Slave Trade (16th–19th centuries) – Enslavement of Africans, linked to sugar and tobacco plantations.

  • Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) – Agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing new lands (Spain took the Americas; Portugal took Brazil, Africa, and Asia).

  • Mercantilism – Economic policy that emphasized accumulating wealth and establishing colonies.

  • Encomienda System – Spanish labor system that forced Indigenous people into servitude.

E. European Colonization
  • Spain: Conquered large parts of the Americas (Mexico, Peru, the Caribbean).

  • Portugal: Focused on Brazil, Africa, and Asia.

  • France: Claimed Canada and Louisiana.

  • England: Established settlements in North America (Jamestown, 1607; Plymouth, 1620).

  • The Dutch: Controlled trade networks in Asia (Dutch East India Company) and New Amsterdam (New York).















Unit 2: Age of Reformation 

(c. 1517–1648)

I. The Protestant Reformation (c. 1517–1648)

A religious movement that led to the fragmentation of Western Christianity and the decline of the Catholic Church’s power in Europe.

A. Causes of the Reformation

  • Corruption in the Catholic Church: Simony (sale of church offices), pluralism (holding multiple offices), absenteeism, and the sale of indulgences (pardons for sins).

  • Renaissance Humanism: Encouraged independent thought and study of original biblical texts, leading to criticism of Church doctrine.

  • Printing Press (c. 1450): Spread new ideas, including Martin Luther’s writings, more rapidly.

  • Political Factors: Many rulers resented papal interference and sought more autonomy.

  • Economic Factors: Monarchs and nobles sought to seize Church lands for revenue.

B. Martin Luther and Lutheranism

  • Martin Luther (1483–1546): German monk and theologian who began the Reformation.

  • 95 Theses (1517): Luther’s public challenge to the Catholic Church, criticizing indulgences and corruption.

  • Key Beliefs:

    • Sola Fide ("Faith Alone") – Salvation comes through faith, not good works.

    • Sola Scriptura ("Scripture Alone") – The Bible is the sole authority, not the Pope.

    • Priesthood of All Believers – All Christians have a direct relationship with God.

  • Diet of Worms (1521): Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X but refused to recant his teachings.

  • Peasant Revolt (1525): Inspired by Lutheran ideals but condemned by Luther, leading to brutal suppression.

  • Peace of Augsburg (1555): Allowed German princes to choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for their territories ("Cuius regio, eius religio").





C. John Calvin and Calvinism

  • John Calvin (1509–1564): French reformer who expanded Protestant theology.

  • Key Beliefs:

    • Predestination – God has already determined who will be saved (the Elect) and who will be damned.

    • Theocracy in Geneva (1536) – A strict religious government based on Calvinist principles.

    • Iconoclasm – Rejection of religious images and elaborate rituals.

  • Spread of Calvinism:

    • France: Huguenots (French Calvinists).

    • Scotland: Presbyterian Church (founded by John Knox).

    • Netherlands: Dutch Reformed Church.

    • England: Influenced Puritanism.

D. Henry VIII and the English Reformation

  • Henry VIII (1491–1547): Originally a devout Catholic, but broke from the Church for political reasons.

  • Act of Supremacy (1534): Declared Henry VIII the supreme head of the Church of England (Anglican Church).

  • Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536–1541): Seized Catholic Church lands, enriching the crown.

  • Successors:

    • Edward VI (1547–1553) – Strengthened Protestant reforms.

    • Mary I (1553–1558) – Reversed reforms, executed Protestants ("Bloody Mary").

    • Elizabeth I (1558–1603) – Established a religious compromise (Elizabethan Settlement), maintaining some Catholic traditions within Protestant doctrine.

II. The Catholic Counter-Reformation

A movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself and combat the spread of Protestantism.

A. Key Aspects of the Counter-Reformation

  • Council of Trent (1545–1563):

    • Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings (faith + works, Church traditions, and papal authority).

    • Addressed corruption by banning the sale of indulgences and improving priest training.

  • Jesuits (Society of Jesus, 1540):

    • Founded by Ignatius of Loyola to spread Catholicism and combat Protestantism.

    • Established schools and missionary work (esp. in Asia and the Americas).

  • The Inquisition:

    • Used to combat heresy (e.g., Spanish Inquisition against Jews and Protestants).

    • Index of Prohibited Books (1559) banned Protestant and humanist writings.

III. Wars of Religion (1525–1648)

Religious conflict spread across Europe as Protestantism and Catholicism vied for dominance.

A. German Peasants’ War (1525)

  • Inspired by Lutheran ideas of spiritual equality, German peasants revolted against feudal oppression.

  • Luther condemned the revolt, leading to its violent suppression by nobles.

B. French Wars of Religion (1562–1598)

  • Huguenots (French Calvinists) vs. Catholics – Nobility was divided along religious lines.

  • St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572): Catholic mobs killed thousands of Huguenots.

  • Henry IV (r. 1589–1610):

    • Converted to Catholicism ("Paris is worth a mass") to unify France.

    • Edict of Nantes (1598): Granted religious toleration to Huguenots, ending the conflict.

C. Spanish Armada (1588)

  • Philip II of Spain (Catholic) sent a fleet to invade Protestant England.

  • Elizabeth I of England (Protestant) successfully defended England, strengthening Protestantism in Europe.

D. Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)

  • Initially a religious conflict in the Holy Roman Empire, but expanded into a political struggle.

  • Four Phases of the War:

    • Bohemian Phase (1618–1625) – Protestant nobles rebelled (Defenestration of Prague).

    • Danish Phase (1625–1629) – Catholic forces gained ground.

    • Swedish Phase (1630–1635)Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (Protestant) intervened.

    • French Phase (1635–1648) – Catholic France (under Cardinal Richelieu) supported Protestants to weaken Habsburgs.


  • Peace of Westphalia (1648):

    • Ended the war and religious conflicts in Europe.

    • Recognized state sovereignty – rulers could choose their own religion.

    • Weakened the Holy Roman Empire, leading to German fragmentation.

IV. Effects of the Reformation

A. Religious Impact

  • Protestantism permanently divided Christianity.

  • The Catholic Church was reformed but lost political dominance in Northern Europe.

  • Increased religious pluralism in parts of Europe.

B. Political Impact

  • Weakened the Pope’s influence in secular affairs.

  • Strengthened monarchies (England, France).

  • Holy Roman Empire declined in power.

C. Social and Cultural Impact

  • Increased literacy and education (due to the printing press and Protestant emphasis on Bible reading).

  • More religious diversity in Europe.

  • Growth of religious tolerance (esp. after Edict of Nantes and Peace of Westphalia).
















Unit 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism

 (c. 1648–1815)

I. Absolutism

Absolutism is a system of government in which a monarch holds total power, claiming divine right and ruling without constitutional limits.

A. Characteristics of Absolutism

  • Divine Right of Kings – Monarchs claimed they ruled by God's authority and were answerable only to Him.

  • Centralized Power – Kings reduced the influence of nobles, church officials, and representative bodies.

  • Control of Economy and Military – Monarchs regulated trade, levied taxes, and built powerful standing armies.

  • State Bureaucracies – Expanded government institutions to administer the state.

B. Major Absolute Monarchs

1. France: Louis XIV (r. 1643–1715)
  • Known as the "Sun King," he personified absolutism.

  • "L'état, c'est moi" ("I am the state") – Believed he embodied the state.

  • Built the Palace of Versailles – Served as a symbol of royal power and kept the nobility under control.

  • Revoked the Edict of Nantes (1685) – Persecuted Huguenots, leading to mass emigration.

  • Wars of Louis XIV – Engaged in expansionist wars (War of Spanish Succession, War of Devolution).

  • Economic Policies:

    • Mercantilism (controlled by Jean-Baptiste Colbert) to strengthen the economy.

    • Promoted domestic industry and colonial expansion.\





2. Russia: Peter the Great (r. 1682–1725)
  • Westernization of Russia – Adopted European customs, dress, and military strategies.

  • Built St. Petersburg ("Window to the West") – New capital symbolizing modernization.

  • Military Reforms – Created a modernized standing army and navy.

  • Table of Ranks (1722) – Promoted merit-based advancement in the bureaucracy.

  • Expanded Russian Territory – Won the Great Northern War (1700–1721) against Sweden.

  • Controlled the Russian Orthodox Church – Abolished the patriarch and established the Holy Synod.

3. Prussia: Frederick the Great (r. 1740–1786)
  • Transformed Prussia into a military state – Strengthened its army and expanded territory.

  • Promoted Enlightenment ideals while maintaining absolutist power.

  • Religious Toleration – Allowed freedom of religion but maintained strict control over subjects.

  • War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748) – Seized Silesia from Austria.

  • Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) – Prussia fought against Austria, France, and Russia, emerging as a European power.

II. Constitutionalism

Constitutionalism limits government power through a legal framework, balancing monarchial authority with representative institutions.

A. England: The English Civil War (1642–1651)

  • Causes:

    • King Charles I attempted to rule without Parliament (1629–1640).

    • Religious conflict between Anglicans, Puritans, and Catholics.

    • Economic and taxation disputes.

  • Key Events:

    • Cavaliers (Royalists) vs. Roundheads (Parliamentarians) – War between Charles I’s supporters and those backing Parliament.

    • Oliver Cromwell led the New Model Army to victory.

    • Execution of Charles I (1649) – First time a European monarch was publicly tried and executed.

    • Cromwell’s Rule (1649–1660):

      • Declared England a Commonwealth (republic).

      • Became Lord Protector, ruling as a military dictator.

      • Banned theater, dancing, and Christmas (Puritan influence).

B. The Glorious Revolution (1688)

  • Causes:

    • James II (r. 1685–1688) was Catholic and promoted Catholic officials, alarming Protestant England.

    • Fear of a Catholic dynasty led Parliament to invite William of Orange and Mary to take the throne.

  • Key Events:

    • James II fled to France without bloodshed (hence "Glorious" Revolution).

    • William and Mary (1689–1702) became constitutional monarchs.

  • Effects:

    • English Bill of Rights (1689):

      • Limited royal power, ensuring parliamentary supremacy.

      • Established rights such as freedom of speech in Parliament and protection from arbitrary arrest.

    • Parliament gained power, establishing a constitutional monarchy.

III. The Dutch Golden Age (17th Century)

A period of economic, cultural, and political dominance for the Dutch Republic.

A. Economic Prosperity

  • Dominated global trade through the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and Dutch West India Company.

  • Amsterdam became Europe's financial center (early stock exchange, banking innovations).

  • Advanced shipbuilding and the Fluyt ship increased trade efficiency.

B. Political Structure

  • Unlike absolute monarchies, the Dutch Republic was a confederation of provinces with limited central authority.

  • Stadtholders (executives) ruled in each province, but power remained with merchant elites.

C. Dutch Culture and Art

  • Dutch Masters:

    • Rembrandt van Rijn (The Night Watch).

    • Johannes Vermeer (Girl with a Pearl Earring).

  • Religious Toleration – Allowed Jews, Protestants, and Catholics to practice freely.

  • Decline – By the 18th century, British and French competition weakened Dutch influence.

IV. Political and Economic Changes in Europe

  • Rise of Capitalism – The commercial revolution led to early forms of capitalism and banking.

  • Mercantilism Dominated – Governments regulated trade to benefit the state.

  • Increased Taxation – Monarchs used taxation to fund armies and bureaucracies.

  • Enlightenment Beginnings – Philosophers began questioning absolutism and advocating for government reform.


V. Key Comparisons: Absolutism vs. Constitutionalism

Feature

Absolutism

Constitutionalism

Power

Centralized in the monarch

Limited by laws and representative bodies

Religious Policy

Often favored one religion (Catholicism in France, Orthodox in Russia)

More religious tolerance (esp. in England, Dutch Republic)

Military

Large standing armies under monarchs

Controlled by Parliament or representative bodies

Economic System

Mercantilism, state control

Trade and commerce led by private enterprises

Role of Nobles

Nobles weakened, forced to serve monarchy (e.g., Versailles)

Nobles retained influence (e.g., English Parliament, Dutch States General)








Unit 4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments 

(c. 1540–1789)

I. The Scientific Revolution (c. 1540–1700)

A period of profound change in scientific thought, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and reason.

A. Causes of the Scientific Revolution

  • Renaissance Humanism: Encouraged a return to classical knowledge and inquiry.

  • Printing Press (c. 1450): Allowed for the rapid spread of new ideas.

  • Exploration and Navigation: Led to advancements in astronomy and cartography.

  • Reformation: Challenged traditional authorities, encouraging independent thought.

B. Key Figures and Discoveries

1. Astronomy and Physics

Scientist

Contribution

Key Work

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)

Heliocentrism – Proposed that the Earth orbits the sun, challenging the Ptolemaic (geocentric) model.

On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (1543)

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)

Developed Laws of Planetary Motion, proving elliptical orbits.

Astronomia Nova (1609)

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)

Improved the telescope, provided evidence for heliocentrism, discovered Jupiter's moons.

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632)

Isaac Newton (1642–1727)

Formulated laws of motion and gravity, unifying celestial and earthly mechanics.

Principia Mathematica (1687)

  • Galileo’s Trial (1633): The Catholic Church condemned him for advocating heliocentrism, forcing him to recant under threat of execution.



2. The Scientific Method

Thinker

Contribution

Approach

Francis Bacon (1561–1626)

Developed Empiricism – Knowledge comes from observation and experimentation.

Novum Organum (1620)

René Descartes (1596–1650)

Developed Rationalism – Emphasized reason as the basis for knowledge.

Discourse on Method (1637) – "I think, therefore I am."

  • Scientific Societies:

    • Royal Society of London (1660) – Promoted scientific collaboration.

    • French Academy of Sciences (1666) – Sponsored research and publication.

C. Impact of the Scientific Revolution

  • Weakened religious explanations of the universe.

  • Encouraged technological advancements (e.g., improved navigation, medicine).

  • Laid the foundation for the Enlightenment.

II. The Enlightenment (c. 1680–1789)

A period of intellectual and philosophical growth that applied reason to politics, economics, and social issues.

A. Key Ideas of the Enlightenment

  • Reason: Rational thought should guide decisions.

  • Natural Rights: Life, liberty, and property were inherent to all humans.

  • Social Contract: Governments must serve the people or be replaced.

  • Progress: Society can improve through education and reform.

  • Religious Toleration: Criticism of religious persecution and divine-right monarchy





.

B. Major Enlightenment Thinkers

Thinker

Key Idea

Major Work

John Locke (1632–1704)

Natural Rights – Life, liberty, property. Governments must protect these rights or be overthrown.

Two Treatises of Government (1689)

Voltaire (1694–1778)

Freedom of Speech & Religion – Criticized religious intolerance.

Candide (1759)

Montesquieu (1689–1755)

Separation of Powers – Prevent tyranny through checks and balances.

The Spirit of the Laws (1748)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)

General Will – Governments must reflect the collective will of the people.

The Social Contract (1762)

Denis Diderot (1713–1784)

Created the Encyclopedia, compiling Enlightenment ideas.

Encyclopédie (1751–1772)

Adam Smith (1723–1790)

Laissez-faire Economics – Free markets should regulate themselves.

The Wealth of Nations (1776)

C. Women and the Enlightenment

  • Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797)A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), argued for women’s education and equality.

  • Salons – Gatherings hosted by women (e.g., Madame de Geoffrin) that spread Enlightenment ideas.

D. Impact of the Enlightenment

  • Political Revolutions – Influenced the American (1776) and French (1789) Revolutions.

  • Education Reform – Expansion of literacy and secular schooling.

  • Human Rights – Basis for modern democracy and constitutional government.

  • Challenged Absolutism – Led to reforms and resistance by monarchs.




III. Enlightened Despotism

Some absolute monarchs embraced Enlightenment ideas to modernize their states while retaining power.

A. Characteristics of Enlightened Despotism

  • Promoted education, legal reform, and religious toleration.

  • Supported economic innovation (often at the expense of peasant rights).

  • Rejected full democracy, maintaining centralized control.

B. Major Enlightened Despots

1. Catherine the Great (r. 1762–1796, Russia)
  • Corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot.

  • Westernized Russia (education, art, administration).

  • Expanded serfdom despite Enlightenment rhetoric.

  • Expanded Russian territory (Partition of Poland).

2. Frederick the Great (r. 1740–1786, Prussia)
  • Promoted religious tolerance and legal reforms.

  • Modernized Prussian bureaucracy and military.

  • Supported education and arts but remained an absolute ruler.

3. Joseph II (r. 1780–1790, Austria)
  • Abolished serfdom (later reinstated).

  • Promoted freedom of the press and religion.

  • Implemented legal reforms and state-controlled education.

C. Limits of Enlightened Despotism

  • Reforms were often reversed after rulers’ deaths.

  • Peasants and serfs saw little benefit.

  • Maintained centralized power while appearing progressive.





IV. The Legacy of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

A. Political and Social Changes

  • Inspired the American (1776) and French (1789) Revolutions.

  • Challenged traditional monarchies and religious institutions.

  • Promoted constitutional government and individual rights.

B. Economic Changes

  • Shift from mercantilism to capitalism (Adam Smith’s free-market theories).

  • Growth of industrialization and economic liberalism.

C. Cultural and Intellectual Impact

  • Increased literacy and secular education.

  • Development of modern science as an independent discipline.

  • Rise of political discourse and public debate.












Unit 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century 

(c. 1750–1815)


I. Causes of the French Revolution

The French Revolution (1789–1799) was driven by long-term political, economic, and social issues, as well as Enlightenment ideas.

A. Political Causes

  • Absolute Monarchy – The Bourbon kings (Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI) ruled with divine right and ignored political reforms.

  • Weak LeadershipLouis XVI (r. 1774–1792) was indecisive and ineffective. His wife, Marie Antoinette, was unpopular due to extravagant spending ("Let them eat cake" – falsely attributed).

  • Estates-General (1789) – The first meeting since 1614; intended to solve the financial crisis but exposed deep inequalities.

B. Economic Causes

  • Financial Crisis:

    • Debt from Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) and American Revolution (1775–1783).

    • Tax burden fell mainly on the Third Estate (peasants, workers, middle class), while nobles and clergy were exempt.

    • Poor harvests (1787–1789) led to food shortages and rising bread prices.

  • Taxation System:

    • Corrupt and inefficient, with tax farming leading to high peasant burdens.

C. Social Causes: The Three Estates

  1. First Estate – Clergy (1% of the population, owned 10% of land, paid no taxes).

  2. Second Estate – Nobility (2% of the population, owned 25% of land, held privileges).

  3. Third Estate – Commoners (97% of the population, burdened with taxes, had no political power).



D. Intellectual Causes: The Enlightenment

  • John Locke – Natural rights and government by consent.

  • Montesquieu – Separation of powers.

  • Rousseau – Popular sovereignty and general will.

  • Voltaire – Criticism of absolute monarchy and Church influence.

II. Phases of the French Revolution (1789–1799)

The revolution progressed through different phases, from moderate reform to radical change.

A. National Assembly & Moderate Phase (1789–1792)

  • Tennis Court Oath (June 1789) – Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, vowing not to disband until a constitution was created.

  • Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) – A mob attacked the Bastille prison, symbolizing the end of royal authority.

  • Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (August 1789) – Established liberty, equality, fraternity as fundamental principles.

  • Women's March on Versailles (October 1789) – Forced the royal family to move to Paris.

  • Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790) – Reduced the Church’s power and made clergy state employees.

  • Constitution of 1791 – Established a constitutional monarchy, but Louis XVI’s attempted escape to Austria (Flight to Varennes) undermined trust in the monarchy.

B. Radical Phase & Reign of Terror (1792–1794)

  • War with Austria and Prussia (1792) – Foreign monarchs feared revolution would spread.

  • September Massacres (1792) – Mobs executed political prisoners.

  • Abolition of the Monarchy (1792) – France declared a republic, and Louis XVI was executed (January 1793).

  • Reign of Terror (1793–1794):

    • Maximilien Robespierre led the Committee of Public Safety.

    • Mass executions (40,000 people, including Marie Antoinette) via guillotine.

    • Levee en Masse (1793) – First mass conscription for national defense.

  • Thermidorian Reaction (1794) – Robespierre was arrested and executed, ending the Reign of Terror.



C. The Directory (1795–1799)

  • A corrupt five-member executive body ruled France.

  • Economic problems and war with Europe continued.

  • Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, a military leader, led to the collapse of the Directory.

III. Napoleon’s Rise and the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815)

Napoleon rose to power as a military hero, establishing an empire across Europe.

A. Napoleon’s Rise to Power

  • Coup d'état (1799) – Overthrew the Directory and established the Consulate (Napoleon as First Consul).

  • 1804: Crowned himself Emperor – Signified his power was not granted by the Pope.

B. Domestic Reforms (Napoleonic Code, Economy, Education)

  • Napoleonic Code (1804) – Standardized laws, promoted meritocracy, but limited women's rights.

  • Concordat of 1801 – Reconciled with the Catholic Church while maintaining religious toleration.

  • Education Reforms – Created lycées (state-run schools) for bureaucratic training.

C. The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815)

  • Expanded French control over Europe but faced constant opposition.

  • Key Battles:

    • Battle of Austerlitz (1805) – Napoleon’s greatest victory over Austria and Russia.

    • Battle of Trafalgar (1805) – British Admiral Nelson defeated Napoleon’s navy, preventing an invasion of Britain.

    • Peninsular War (1808–1814) – Spanish guerrilla warfare weakened French forces.

    • Invasion of Russia (1812) – Napoleon’s army was devastated by the Russian winter and scorched earth tactics.

  • Defeated in 1814 – Exiled to Elba, but returned for 100 Days (1815) before final defeat.

D. The Fall of Napoleon

  • Battle of Leipzig (1813) – Allies defeated Napoleon.

  • Exiled to Elba (1814) – Briefly returned to power in Hundred Days (1815).

  • Battle of Waterloo (1815) – Napoleon defeated by Duke of Wellington.

  • Exiled to St. Helena (1815) – Died in 1821.

IV. The Congress of Vienna (1815): Restoring Order in Europe

After Napoleon’s defeat, European powers met to restore balance of power and prevent future revolutions.

A. Goals of the Congress of Vienna

  • Led by Klemens von Metternich (Austria).

  • Principle of Legitimacy – Restored monarchs to their thrones.

  • Balance of Power – Prevented any one nation from dominating Europe.

  • Compensation – France lost territory, and Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia gained land.

  • Concert of Europe – Alliance to suppress revolutions (conservatism vs. liberalism).

B. Outcomes

  • French monarchy restored (Louis XVIII).

  • Maintained peace in Europe until Revolutions of 1848.

  • Suppressed liberalism and nationalism, but revolutionary ideas persisted.

V. Legacy of the French Revolution and Napoleon

A. Political Impact

  • Ended feudalism and absolute monarchy in France.

  • Inspired revolutions worldwide (Latin America, 1848 revolutions).

  • Rise of nationalism across Europe.

B. Social and Legal Changes

  • Napoleonic Code influenced legal systems worldwide.

  • Merit-based society replaced aristocratic privilege.

C. Economic Impact

  • Modernized taxation and financial systems.

  • Increased trade, industry, and banking reforms.




Unit 6: Industrialization and Its Effects 

(c. 1815–1914)

I. The Industrial Revolution (c. 1750–1914)

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain and spread across Europe and beyond, bringing rapid economic and technological change.

A. Why Britain? (Factors Leading to Industrialization)

  1. Natural Resources

    • Coal and Iron – Provided energy and materials for machinery.

    • Navigable Rivers and Ports – Facilitated transportation and trade.

  2. Agricultural Revolution (18th Century)

    • Enclosure Movement – Consolidated farms, displacing peasants and creating a workforce for factories.

    • Crop Rotation and Selective Breeding – Increased food production, supporting population growth.

  3. Capital and Banking System

    • Investment in industry – Banks provided loans for factories.

    • Entrepreneurship – A growing middle class invested in new businesses.

  4. Political Stability

    • Constitutional Monarchy – Stable government encouraged innovation.

    • Laws protecting property rights – Encouraged investment.

  5. Technological Advancements

    • Britain led in mechanization and scientific discoveries that improved productivity.

II. Key Technological Innovations

A. Textile Industry (First industry to industrialize)

  • Spinning Jenny (1764)James Hargreaves increased yarn production.

  • Water Frame (1769)Richard Arkwright used water power to spin thread.

  • Power Loom (1787)Edmund Cartwright mechanized weaving, reducing the need for skilled workers.

B. Steam Power and Mechanization

  • Steam Engine (1769)James Watt improved the steam engine, providing efficient energy for factories, railroads, and ships.

  • Iron and Steel

    • Bessemer Process (1856) – Allowed mass production of steel, making buildings, bridges, and railroads stronger and cheaper.

    • Coal Mining Expanded – Powered steam engines and iron production.

C. Transportation Revolution

  • Railroads (1820s-1830s)

    • George Stephenson’s "Rocket" (1829) – Early locomotive.

    • Rail networks connected cities, boosting industry and urbanization.

  • Steamships (1807)Robert Fulton developed steam-powered ships, improving trade and travel.

D. Communication Advances

  • Telegraph (1837)Samuel Morse allowed faster long-distance communication.

III. The Social and Economic Impact of Industrialization

A. Urbanization and Changing Living Conditions

  • Mass migration to cities – Factory jobs attracted rural workers.

  • Overcrowding and Poor Sanitation – Cities like Manchester and London had slums, poor public health, and pollution.

  • Crime and Disease – Lack of sanitation led to outbreaks of cholera and tuberculosis.

B. Factory System and Changing Work Conditions

  • Factory Work vs. Cottage Industry – Shift from home-based work to factory labor.

  • Rigid Schedules – Long hours (12–16 hours/day), dangerous conditions.

  • Child Labor – Children as young as 5 years old worked in textile mills and coal mines.

  • Women in Industry – Worked in textile factories, but earned half of men's wages.

C. Class Structure and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie

  1. Industrial Middle Class ("Bourgeoisie")

    • Wealthy entrepreneurs and factory owners.

    • Valued hard work, education, and self-discipline.

  2. Working Class ("Proletariat")

    • Low wages, poor conditions.

    • Lived in tenements with little sanitation.

    • Women and children worked to supplement household income.

D. Responses to Industrialization

1. Economic Theories: Capitalism vs. Socialism
  • Laissez-Faire Capitalism (Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776)

    • Free market economy with minimal government interference.

    • Encouraged competition and innovation.

  • Socialism and Communism

    • Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels (1848)The Communist Manifesto

      • History is a class struggle between bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers).

      • Advocated for a workers' revolution to establish a classless society.

2. Labor Movements and Reforms
  • Luddites (1811–1816)Destroyed machines that threatened their jobs.

  • Trade Unions – Organized to demand better wages, hours, and conditions.

  • Factory Acts (1833, 1847, 1878) – Limited child labor and work hours.

IV. Industrialization’s Spread Across Europe and Beyond

A. Industrialization in Continental Europe

  • Belgium (1830s) – First to industrialize outside Britain.

  • Germany (1850s–1870s)Heavy industry (steel, coal, railroads) led to its rise as a European power.

  • France (Late 19th Century) – Industrialized more slowly due to revolutions and wars.

B. Industrialization in the United States and Beyond

  • United States (c. 1820s–1900s)

    • Mass production innovations (e.g., assembly line, Henry Ford).

    • Railroad expansion connected industries and markets.

  • Japan (Meiji Restoration, 1868–1900s)

    • Rapid modernization and industrialization to compete with the West.


V. Consequences of Industrialization

A. Positive Effects

  • Mass Production – Lower prices, more goods available.

  • Improved Transportation – Railroads and steamships revolutionized trade.

  • Higher Wages (Eventually) – Factory jobs paid more than subsistence farming.

  • Medical AdvancesLouis Pasteur developed germ theory, improving public health.

B. Negative Effects

  • Exploitation of Workers – Low wages, child labor, unsafe conditions.

  • Environmental PollutionSmog, deforestation, water contamination.

  • Class StrugglesGap between rich and poor widened.

VI. Political and Intellectual Reactions to Industrialization

A. Socialism and Communism

  • Utopian SocialismRobert Owen created model factory communities.

  • Scientific SocialismMarx and Engels predicted a proletarian revolution.

B. Government Reforms

  • Britain’s Factory Acts (1833, 1847, 1878) – Improved labor laws.

  • Public Education (late 1800s) – Governments introduced mandatory schooling to create an educated workforce.

  • Urban PlanningSanitation reforms improved city living conditions.

VII. Industrialization and Political Change

A. The Rise of Political Movements

  • Chartist Movement (1830s–1840s, Britain) – Sought universal male suffrage, secret ballots, and labor rights.

  • Liberalism vs. Conservatism

    • Liberals (Middle class) – Free trade, limited government.

    • Conservatives (Nobles, landowners) – Supported monarchy and traditional order.

B. Imperialism and Industrialization

  • Need for Raw Materials – Industrial nations sought colonies in Africa and Asia.

  • Technology and Military Superiority – Maxim machine guns, steam-powered navies.

  • Social Darwinism – Justified European domination as "survival of the fittest."






















Unit 7: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments (c. 1815–1914)

I. The Revolutions of 1848: The "Springtime of Nations"

The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of liberal and nationalist uprisings across Europe, but most ultimately failed.

A. Causes of the 1848 Revolutions

  1. Political:

    • Desire for constitutional governments instead of absolutism.

    • Growing nationalist movements in fragmented states (e.g., Italy, Germany).

  2. Economic:

    • Industrialization created class tensions (working class demanded labor rights).

    • Agricultural crises (1846–1847) led to famine and rising food prices.

  3. Social:

    • Middle class sought political representation.

    • Working class demanded better conditions.

B. Key Revolutions

Country

Leaders

Goals

Outcome

France

Louis-Philippe, Louis-Napoleon

Overthrow of monarchy, Republic established

Success (temporarily): Second Republic formed but later replaced by Second Empire (1852)

Germany

Frankfurt Parliament

National unification under a liberal constitution

Failure: Divisions among liberals, rejected by Prussian king

Austria

Kossuth (Hungary)

Nationalist movements in Hungary and Bohemia

Failure: Revolutions crushed by Austrian and Russian forces

Italy

Mazzini, Young Italy

Unification and constitutional monarchy

Failure: Austria defeated revolutionaries, but ideas fueled later unification


C. Why Did the Revolutions Fail?

  • Lack of unity between middle-class liberals and working-class radicals.

  • Conservative monarchies (Austria, Prussia, Russia) crushed uprisings.

  • Nationalist divisions – Different ethnic groups had conflicting interests.

D. Effects of the Revolutions

  • Temporary liberal gains (abolition of feudalism in Austria).

  • Rise of Realpolitik – Leaders like Bismarck and Cavour focused on pragmatic, strategic nationalism.

  • Encouraged future nationalist movements (Italy, Germany).

II. The Unification of Italy (1861)

Italy had been divided into multiple states, some controlled by Austria and the Papacy. The Italian unification movement (Risorgimento) was driven by diplomacy, war, and nationalist activism.

A. Key Figures in Italian Unification

Leader

Role

Contributions

Giuseppe Mazzini ("The Heart")

Ideologue

Founded Young Italy, promoted nationalist revolts.

Count Camillo di Cavour ("The Brain")

Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont

Used diplomacy, alliances, and war to unify northern Italy.

Giuseppe Garibaldi ("The Sword")

Military leader

Led the Red Shirts, conquered southern Italy.

Victor Emmanuel II

King of Sardinia-Piedmont

Became first king of unified Italy in 1861.

B. Steps to Italian Unification

  1. Cavour’s Diplomacy

    • Allied with France (Napoleon III) against Austria (1859).

    • Won Lombardy, inspiring other Italian states to join.

  2. Garibaldi’s Military Campaign (1860–1861)

    • Led the Red Shirts to conquer Sicily and Naples.

    • Handed control to Victor Emmanuel II, unifying Italy in 1861.

  3. Final Unification (1866–1870)

    • 1866: Italy gained Venice after Prussia defeated Austria.

    • 1870: Italy took Rome after French troops withdrew.

C. Challenges After Unification

  • North-South Divide – Industrial North vs. rural, poor South.

  • Papal opposition – The Pope refused to recognize Italian rule.

  • Weak political system – Corruption and instability.

III. The Unification of Germany (1871)

Unlike Italy, Germany was fragmented into 39 states under Austrian and Prussian influence. Otto von Bismarck led German unification using Realpolitik (pragmatic, strategic politics) and war.

A. Key Figures in German Unification

Leader

Role

Contributions

Otto von Bismarck

Prime Minister of Prussia

Architect of unification, used Realpolitik and military strength.

Wilhelm I

King of Prussia, later Emperor of Germany

Strengthened Prussia, supported Bismarck.

Helmuth von Moltke

Prussian General

Led military campaigns in the wars of unification.

B. Steps to German Unification

  1. The Danish War (1864)Prussia and Austria vs. Denmark

    • Prussia took Schleswig, Austria took Holstein.

  2. The Austro-Prussian War (1866) – "Seven Weeks’ War"

    • Prussia defeated Austria and created the North German Confederation.

    • Austria was excluded from German affairs.

  3. The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)

    • Cause: Bismarck manipulated a diplomatic crisis (Ems Dispatch) to provoke war with France (Napoleon III).

    • Battle of Sedan (1870): Prussia crushed France, capturing Napoleon III.

    • Result: Southern German states joined Prussia to form a united Germany.

C. German Empire Declared (1871)

  • Wilhelm I crowned Kaiser (Emperor) at Versailles (1871).

  • Bismarck’s "Blood and Iron" Speech – Emphasized war and industry in unification.

  • Germany became the most powerful state in Europe.

D. Impact of German Unification

  • Shift in Balance of Power – Germany replaced France as the dominant European power.

  • Rise of Militarism – Germany built a powerful army and economy.

  • Tensions with FranceFrance sought revenge (led to WWI).

IV. Political and Social Ideologies of the 19th Century

A. Nationalism

  • Unifying force (Germany, Italy) and dividing force (Austria-Hungary).

  • Pan-Slavism – Russian-supported nationalist movement among Slavic peoples.

B. Conservatism vs. Liberalism

Conservatism

Liberalism

Supported monarchies and aristocracy.

Wanted constitutional governments and free markets.

Led by Metternich (Austria).

Inspired by Enlightenment ideas.

Favored by Russia, Prussia, Austria.

Supported by middle class.

C. Socialism and Marxism

  • Karl Marx & Friedrich EngelsThe Communist Manifesto (1848).

  • Called for worker revolution and abolition of capitalism.




V. The Road to World War I

  • Tensions grew between European powers as alliances and nationalism escalated.

  • Bismarck’s Alliances (1870s–1890s):

    • Dual Alliance (1879): Germany and Austria-Hungary.

    • Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.

  • France & Britain responded with the Triple Entente (1907).

  • By 1914, Europe was divided into hostile camps, setting the stage for World War I.




































Unit 8: 20th-Century Global Conflicts 

(c. 1914–1945)

I. World War I (1914–1918)

A devastating global conflict that led to the collapse of empires, political upheavals, and redrawn national borders.

A. Causes of World War I: The MAIN Factors

  1. Militarism

    • European nations engaged in an arms race (Germany vs. Britain’s navy).

    • War was seen as glorious and inevitable due to military build-up.

  2. Alliances

    • Triple Alliance (1882)Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.

    • Triple Entente (1907)Britain, France, Russia.

    • Alliances drew multiple countries into the war after the initial conflict.

  3. Imperialism

    • Competition for colonies created tensions (e.g., France vs. Germany in Africa).

    • European powers fought over resources and influence worldwide.

  4. Nationalism

    • Ethnic tensions in the Balkans ("Powder Keg of Europe").

    • Pan-Slavism led Serbia and Russia to resist Austro-Hungarian control.

B. The Spark: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (June 28, 1914)

  • Gavrilo Princip (Serbian nationalist, part of the Black Hand) assassinated the Austrian heir.

  • Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, triggering a chain reaction among alliances.




C. The Course of World War I

Front

Key Characteristics

Western Front

Trench Warfare, high casualties (Battle of the Somme, Verdun).

Eastern Front

More fluid, Russia struggled (led to 1917 Revolution).

Ottoman Front

Gallipoli Campaign (1915) – failed Allied invasion of Turkey.

D. US Entry and Russian Withdrawal

  • US Entry (1917) – Due to German unrestricted submarine warfare (Lusitania, 1915) and Zimmermann Telegram (Germany sought Mexican alliance).

  • Russian Revolution (1917) – Bolsheviks seized power, Russia withdrew from the war (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918).

E. End of the War and Treaty of Versailles (1919)

  • Armistice (November 11, 1918) – Germany surrendered.

  • Treaty of Versailles (1919):

    • Blamed Germany (War Guilt Clause, Article 231).

    • Forced Germany to pay reparations.

    • League of Nations created (but US did not join).

II. The Russian Revolution (1917) and the Rise of Communism

A. Causes of the Revolution

  • Autocratic Rule of Tsar Nicholas II – Weak leadership.

  • WWI WeaknessesMass casualties, food shortages.

  • March Revolution (1917) – Tsar abdicated, Provisional Government took over.

  • November Revolution (1917)Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government.

B. Bolsheviks and the USSR

  • Lenin’s Reforms – "Peace, Land, and Bread".

  • Civil War (1918–1921)Red Army (Communists) vs. White Army (Royalists).

  • USSR (1922) – First communist state established.

  • Stalin Takes Over (1924)Five-Year Plans, collectivization, purges.


III. World War II (1939–1945)

A total war that involved nearly every part of the world, leading to massive destruction and the reshaping of global politics.

A. Causes of World War II

  1. Treaty of Versailles (1919) – Created resentment in Germany.

  2. Economic HardshipGreat Depression (1929) led to political extremism.

  3. Rise of Dictators

    • Adolf Hitler (Germany) – Nazi expansionism.

    • Benito Mussolini (Italy) – Fascist imperialism.

    • Hideki Tojo (Japan) – Military aggression in Asia.

  4. Appeasement

    • Munich Agreement (1938) – Britain and France allowed Hitler to take Sudetenland.

    • Failed to stop German expansion.

B. Key Events of World War II

Event

Date

Description

German Invasion of Poland

Sept. 1, 1939

Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) strategy, led to British/French declaration of war.

Fall of France

1940

Germany occupied Paris in six weeks.

Battle of Britain

1940–41

British RAF defended against German air raids.

Operation Barbarossa

1941

Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union, largest land invasion in history.

Pearl Harbor

Dec. 7, 1941

Japanese attack on the US, led to US entering the war.

D-Day (Normandy Invasion)

June 6, 1944

Allied troops landed in France to push back Germans.

Battle of the Bulge

Dec. 1944–Jan. 1945

Last major German offensive in Western Europe.

Atomic Bombings

Aug. 6 & 9, 1945

Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombed, forcing Japan to surrender.


C. End of the War

  • Germany Surrenders (May 1945)Hitler committed suicide (April 30, 1945).

  • Japan Surrenders (August 1945) – After atomic bombings.

IV. The Holocaust and Genocide

A. The Holocaust ("Final Solution")

  • 6 million Jews murdered in concentration camps (Auschwitz, Treblinka).

  • Other victims – Slavs, Romani people, disabled individuals, political prisoners.

B. Genocide and War Crimes

  • Nuremberg Trials (1945–1946)Nazi leaders tried for crimes against humanity.

V. Aftermath and the New World Order

A. Post-War Agreements and Institutions

  • United Nations (1945) – Created to prevent future conflicts.

  • Cold War Begins – US vs. USSR ideological and military rivalry.

B. Impact of the Wars on the World

  • European Empires Declined – Colonies in Asia and Africa sought independence.

  • New SuperpowersUS and USSR emerged as global leaders.

  • Mass Destruction50+ million deaths, cities in ruins.









Unit 9: Cold War and Contemporary Europe 

(c. 1945–Present)

I. The Cold War (1945–1991)

A period of tension, proxy wars, and ideological competition between the US and the USSR.

A. Causes of the Cold War

  1. Conflicting IdeologiesCapitalism vs. Communism.

  2. Post-WWII Power Struggle – Both US and USSR sought influence over war-torn Europe.

  3. Nuclear Arms RaceMutually Assured Destruction (MAD) prevented direct war.

  4. Yalta & Potsdam Conferences (1945)Germany divided into occupation zones.

  5. Truman Doctrine (1947) – US pledged to contain communism.

  6. Marshall Plan (1948–1952) – US provided $13 billion to rebuild Europe, preventing communism’s spread.

B. Formation of Alliances

  • NATO (1949) – US-led military alliance for Western Europe.

  • Warsaw Pact (1955) – Soviet response, uniting Eastern European nations under communist control.








C. Key Cold War Conflicts & Events

Event

Date

Description

Berlin Airlift

1948–1949

US airlifted supplies to West Berlin after Stalin blockaded it.

Korean War

1950–1953

First major proxy war, US-backed South Korea vs. Soviet-backed North Korea.

Berlin Wall

1961–1989

Built to prevent East Germans from fleeing to the West.

Cuban Missile Crisis

1962

Closest the world came to nuclear war after the USSR placed missiles in Cuba.

Vietnam War

1955–1975

US fought to contain communism in Vietnam, but lost.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

1979–1989

USSR fought Mujahideen rebels (US-backed), leading to USSR’s decline.


II. The Fall of the Soviet Union (1991)

The USSR collapsed due to economic struggles, reform efforts, and nationalist movements.

A. Mikhail Gorbachev's Reforms

  • Glasnost ("Openness") – Allowed freedom of speech, press, and criticism of the government.

  • Perestroika ("Restructuring") – Introduced limited capitalism and economic reforms.

  • End of the Arms RaceINF Treaty (1987) reduced nuclear weapons.

B. Events Leading to the Collapse

  • Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) – Symbolized the end of communist rule in Eastern Europe.

  • Revolutions of 1989 – Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia transitioned to democracy.

  • USSR Dissolved (December 25, 1991)Russia and 14 former Soviet republics became independent.

III. Post-Cold War Europe: Integration and Challenges

A. The European Union (EU) and Economic Integration

Event

Year

Significance

Maastricht Treaty

1993

Created the European Union (EU).

Schengen Agreement

1995

Allowed free movement across EU countries.

Introduction of the Euro (€)

1999

Created a common currency to boost trade and economic unity.

  • The EU expanded, incorporating Eastern European nations (2004, 2007).

B. Brexit (2016–2020)

  • UK voted to leave the EU (June 23, 2016).

  • Reasons for Brexit:

    • Concerns over immigration and national sovereignty.

    • Frustration with EU regulations and bureaucracy.

  • UK officially left the EU on January 31, 2020.

IV. Contemporary Challenges in Europe

A. Globalization and Migration

  • Technology, trade, and communication connected economies but also led to job displacement.

  • Migration Crisis (2015–Present):

    • Syrian Civil War and Middle Eastern conflicts led to a refugee surge into Europe.

    • Far-right nationalist parties gained popularity, opposing immigration.

B. Climate Change and Environmental Policies

  • Paris Agreement (2015) – Global pact to reduce carbon emissions.

  • Green Energy Initiatives – The EU pushed for renewable energy investment.




C. Russia’s Resurgence and Ukraine Crisis

  • Annexation of Crimea (2014)Russia invaded Ukraine, leading to sanctions from the West.

  • War in Ukraine (2022–Present)Russian full-scale invasion, sparking a major European security crisis.