EXAM 3 REDO (Psych 214)
Chapter 8
Progress from scribbles to representational forms (age 3)
Better, more realistic art, around 5-6
Cultural differences influence drawing skills
EX: Chinese children tend to have a better understanding of brush strokes for painting and drawing
Brain growth involves a reshaping and refining process
Ages 2-6: brain increases 90% of its adult weight
Ages 8-10: cognitive functioning becomes localized in distinct neural systems
Prefrontal cortical areas: executive functioning
Experiences rapid growth during ages 8-10
Childhood poverty can negatively affect brain development
Brain structures that have control of cognitive functioning and emotional abilities
Frontal lobes, temporal lobes, and hippocampus
Improvements in gross and fine motor skills
Bodies become less top heavy
Better balance and new motor skills
Fine motor skills develop more in preschool
Allows for dressing, using utensils like forks and spoons, and drawing representational forms
Individual differences can influence the development of motor skills
EX: Taller, muscular kids develop these skills faster
Gender variations in skill development
Boys excel in power related motor skills
Girls excel in fine motor activities that require balance and foot movement
Social pressure influences participation in certain activities
Children become less top heavy
Center of gravity shifts outward, which improves balance
Paves the way for new motor skills to develop
Allows upper and lower body skills to get more refined actions
Widespread immunization leads to significant decrease in childhood disease
28% infants and 32% of poverty stricken children are not fully vaccinated
Lack of health insurance, misinformation about the effects, and religious/philosophical exemptions
Makes the immune system worse, making children more susceptible to disease
Malnutrition causes physical growth and cognitive development
EX: widespread diarrhea due to poor nutrition causes stunted growth and leads to death
Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) and zinc supplements are used to prevent these outcomes
Picky eating starts at age 2
Normal adaptive behavior
Appetites decline as growth slows which leads to picky eating
A way to ensure they eat safe foods, which ensures survival and health
Introduce through by repeating and not pressuring the child, which can increase acceptance
Social environment plays a role
Imitating eating the foods that people they admire eat
Emotional climate at mealtime effects eating habits; hostility will not make the child eat the food (avoidance) and passive approaches will not allow it either (falling into habit)
Restricting foods increase the child's desire for it, meaning they will overeat it when they get access to it. Allow it, but only on occasion.
Healthy sleep patterns important for growth and cognitive development
Growth Hormones (GH) necessary for development of all body tissues, which is typically released during sleep
Sleep improves physical growth
Poor diet, disease, and sleep leads to stunted growth
Catch up growth occur with proper intervention like ORT
Heredity and hormones play a role in children's physical size and growth rate.
Children develop dominant hand for writing and other tasks around ages 4-6
Maturation of brain and motor skills during early childhood
Growth slows after first 2 years of life
Individual differences in size become more apparent
Skeletal changes continue with the new growth centers where cartilage hardens into bone
Primary teeth replaced by permanent teeth
Important for physical growth
Releases GH and Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) that help body development
TSH makes the thyroid gland release thyroxine, which is crucial for brain development and enhance GH
Epiphysis is growth centers that cartilage turns to bone (skeletal changes in early childhood)
Primary teeth turn to permanent teeth
New epiphyses contributes to growth
— — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Chapter 9
— — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Sociodramatic play: make-believe with others
Increases complexity during early childhood
Pretend play detached from real-life conditions
Less self centered and more complex themes
End of 2nd year
Becomes more complex as children interact with others in pretend situations
Sociodramatic play enhances social competence by allowing the child to practice roles, problem solving, and cooperation with others
Based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
Egocentrism
Failing to understand others’ views
EX: Three mountain problem
Class inclusion
Unable to distinguish between an object or an object’s specific features
EX: Cannot distinguish between red flowers and flowers as a whole
Perform better in Piagetian tasks when actively participating rather than just watching
Conservation tasks
Children who are actively involved do better than children who just watch
Active participation enhances children’s cognitive abilities
Piaget: focused on individual exploration
Independent discovery and construction of knowledge through experience on their own
Self discovery and adaptation
Vygotsky: social interaction
Children learn through interactions with others
Learn with guidance and support in order to reach higher levels of understanding
Vygotsky: private speech– talking to yourself– is a foundation of cognitive processing
Used more when tasks are challenging
Helps with self-guidance
As tasks get more difficult, private speech declines.
Private speech switches to inner speech– talking to yourself, only internal. Thinking to yourself.
Children with difficulty learning use private speech more and longer than other children
Scaffolding by parents help children have advanced executive functioning and better intellectual performance
Different forms of scaffolding
Emphasize independence, interdependence and child obedience
Scaffolding: adjusting support during teaching to match a child's current level of performance
Scripts: person's knowledge about the sequence of events in a situation
Helps predict what will happen next and guide the behavior
Autobiographical: scaffolded by adults
Helps recall and organize stories
Autobiographical: representation of personally meaningful one-time events
Episodic: 3-6 years old; recalling everyday scenarios with things like time, place, person
Improves between ages 3-6
Scripts: general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation
Parents that use a repetitive approach repeat the same questions with little information, which becomes less effective when helping children recall memories
Elaborative style scaffolds memories to better recall and organize detailed stories
When faced with problems, children try multiple approaches at the same time, then work out which ones were most effective to then create strategies with more efficiency and speed; Creating correct solutions to problems and store them in long term memory
Around age 4, children realize that beliefs and desires influence behavior, which helps them become aware of false beliefs. A false belief is understanding that an individual can hold a belief that doesn't actually align with a situation or reality.
Predict the thoughts or outcomes based on incorrect information
Semantic bootstrapping: using word meanings to figure out grammar rules
Relying on semantics to understand grammar rules
Syntactic bootstrapping: discovering word meanings by how they're used
Phonological awareness: reflect on and manipulate sound structures of a spoken language
Children with more phonological awareness end up having better literacy
Lack of phonological awareness can hinder memory and recall
In early childhood, vocab expands rapidly through “fast mapping” where children connect new words with concepts or encounters
Benefit from multiple exposures and examples consistently in different contexts
Vocab growth relies on a combination of perceptual, social, and linguistic components that improve with age
Toddlers: grasp ordinality
Ordinality: order, or sequence of events. “One after another”
Age 3.5-4: grasp, or mastery, of numbers 1-10 and understand cardinality
Cardinality: understanding that the last number in a sequence shows how many things are in a set. The last number is the total.
Age 4: use counting to learn the ability of estimation
Estimation: make educated guesses without numbers. Allows rough estimates.
All highlight the skill of mathematical development
Errors in theory of mind
Viewing the mind as a place to put passive information
underestimates mental activity and struggle to infer others’ thoughts
Overregularization of grammar, applying them to exceptions
“Goed” instead of “went”
Overextension of “-ed” to past tense
Shows active engagement, even with mistakes
— — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Chapter 10
— — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Self Concept: set of attributes, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines them and who they are.
For children/during this time, it’s mostly observable characteristics
name , physical appearance, possessions, and everyday behaviors
By 3.5, children can describe themselves in terms of emotions and attitudes
By 5, personality assessments match what their parents think
Parent child relationships foster positive, coherent self-concept
Children develop initiative vs guilt
Developing sense of purpose
Exploration and activity initiation
Self esteem: the judgements we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgements
Effects our emotional experience, behavior, and long term psychological adjustment
Age 4: several self-judgements
Learning in school, making friends, getting along with parents, treating others kindly
High self esteem: rate their own ability as high and underestimate task difficulty
Mastery of new skills give a higher self esteem
Children who are criticized and have more emphasis on performance will have higher level of shame and crumble under challenge
Based on spending time with someone the child likes, rather than a mutual trust reliance on each other
Preschoolers show this by greeting each other, complementing, or praising someone else's achievements.
These friendships made are essential for social support
Ease of making friends shows how cooperative they are in a classroom as well as other skills like task persistence and academic skills (specifically for kindergarteners)
Small groups, good teacher-child ratio, and daily activities important for this social competence
Innate moral sense
Social experiences and cognitive factors play in
Conscience begins to take shift in early childhood, but influenced by adults and then eventually becoming inner standards
Preschoolers have rigid moral reasoning and morally relevant experiences are important for moral progress
Psychoanalytic perspective: inducing empathy based guilt is effective in influencing children without coercion
Adult guidance helps in conscience development and providing information on how to behave
Authoritative
Effective
High involvement
Adaptive control
High acceptance
Appropriate autonomy
Permissive
High acceptance
Low involvement
Low control
High autonomy
Authoritarian
Low acceptance
Low involvement
High control
Low autonomy
Uninvolved
Low acceptance
Low involvement
Low control
Indifferent autonomy
Positive relationships with parents create positive self-concepts
Preschoolers develop self-concepts like attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values
Development of high self-esteem helps initiative
Parents play a role in promotion of adaptive skills
“Vigorous unfolding” Ages 3-6
Initiative VS Guilt
Initiative: Eagerness to try new tasks and join others, play permits trying new skills, act out highly visible occupations
Guilt: overly strict superego (conscience) causing too much guilt, related to excessive threat, criticism, and punishment from parents
Helps children develop responsibilities and feel guilt when overstepping boundaries
Emotional understanding enhanced when parents label and explain emotions
Attachment security provides open parent-child communication about feelings, which allow navigation of their own emotions
A component of self-regulation influenced by language, self-talk, and repairing relationships
Effective in influencing children without using correction
Preschoolers anticipate feeling guilty when considering that they would be defying their parent
More common in early childhood
Powerful for guiding children into moral behaviors
Influenced by a combination of environmental and cognition
Gender Schema theory
Children pick up gender stereotype preferences and behaviors from others
Parents and peers
Gender identity linked with decision making and personal behavior or the behavior of others
Categorizations of the world
Both social learning and cognitive development play a role in shaping gender roles and preferences
Nonsocial activity: unoccupied, onlooker behavior, and solitary play
Parallel play: Playing with other children nearby with similar toys, but not necessarily interacting with them
Associative play: engaging in separate activities, but exchanging toys and comments
Cooperative play: common goal or make believe play
Chapter 8
Progress from scribbles to representational forms (age 3)
Better, more realistic art, around 5-6
Cultural differences influence drawing skills
EX: Chinese children tend to have a better understanding of brush strokes for painting and drawing
Brain growth involves a reshaping and refining process
Ages 2-6: brain increases 90% of its adult weight
Ages 8-10: cognitive functioning becomes localized in distinct neural systems
Prefrontal cortical areas: executive functioning
Experiences rapid growth during ages 8-10
Childhood poverty can negatively affect brain development
Brain structures that have control of cognitive functioning and emotional abilities
Frontal lobes, temporal lobes, and hippocampus
Improvements in gross and fine motor skills
Bodies become less top heavy
Better balance and new motor skills
Fine motor skills develop more in preschool
Allows for dressing, using utensils like forks and spoons, and drawing representational forms
Individual differences can influence the development of motor skills
EX: Taller, muscular kids develop these skills faster
Gender variations in skill development
Boys excel in power related motor skills
Girls excel in fine motor activities that require balance and foot movement
Social pressure influences participation in certain activities
Children become less top heavy
Center of gravity shifts outward, which improves balance
Paves the way for new motor skills to develop
Allows upper and lower body skills to get more refined actions
Widespread immunization leads to significant decrease in childhood disease
28% infants and 32% of poverty stricken children are not fully vaccinated
Lack of health insurance, misinformation about the effects, and religious/philosophical exemptions
Makes the immune system worse, making children more susceptible to disease
Malnutrition causes physical growth and cognitive development
EX: widespread diarrhea due to poor nutrition causes stunted growth and leads to death
Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) and zinc supplements are used to prevent these outcomes
Picky eating starts at age 2
Normal adaptive behavior
Appetites decline as growth slows which leads to picky eating
A way to ensure they eat safe foods, which ensures survival and health
Introduce through by repeating and not pressuring the child, which can increase acceptance
Social environment plays a role
Imitating eating the foods that people they admire eat
Emotional climate at mealtime effects eating habits; hostility will not make the child eat the food (avoidance) and passive approaches will not allow it either (falling into habit)
Restricting foods increase the child's desire for it, meaning they will overeat it when they get access to it. Allow it, but only on occasion.
Healthy sleep patterns important for growth and cognitive development
Growth Hormones (GH) necessary for development of all body tissues, which is typically released during sleep
Sleep improves physical growth
Poor diet, disease, and sleep leads to stunted growth
Catch up growth occur with proper intervention like ORT
Heredity and hormones play a role in children's physical size and growth rate.
Children develop dominant hand for writing and other tasks around ages 4-6
Maturation of brain and motor skills during early childhood
Growth slows after first 2 years of life
Individual differences in size become more apparent
Skeletal changes continue with the new growth centers where cartilage hardens into bone
Primary teeth replaced by permanent teeth
Important for physical growth
Releases GH and Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) that help body development
TSH makes the thyroid gland release thyroxine, which is crucial for brain development and enhance GH
Epiphysis is growth centers that cartilage turns to bone (skeletal changes in early childhood)
Primary teeth turn to permanent teeth
New epiphyses contributes to growth
— — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Chapter 9
— — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Sociodramatic play: make-believe with others
Increases complexity during early childhood
Pretend play detached from real-life conditions
Less self centered and more complex themes
End of 2nd year
Becomes more complex as children interact with others in pretend situations
Sociodramatic play enhances social competence by allowing the child to practice roles, problem solving, and cooperation with others
Based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
Egocentrism
Failing to understand others’ views
EX: Three mountain problem
Class inclusion
Unable to distinguish between an object or an object’s specific features
EX: Cannot distinguish between red flowers and flowers as a whole
Perform better in Piagetian tasks when actively participating rather than just watching
Conservation tasks
Children who are actively involved do better than children who just watch
Active participation enhances children’s cognitive abilities
Piaget: focused on individual exploration
Independent discovery and construction of knowledge through experience on their own
Self discovery and adaptation
Vygotsky: social interaction
Children learn through interactions with others
Learn with guidance and support in order to reach higher levels of understanding
Vygotsky: private speech– talking to yourself– is a foundation of cognitive processing
Used more when tasks are challenging
Helps with self-guidance
As tasks get more difficult, private speech declines.
Private speech switches to inner speech– talking to yourself, only internal. Thinking to yourself.
Children with difficulty learning use private speech more and longer than other children
Scaffolding by parents help children have advanced executive functioning and better intellectual performance
Different forms of scaffolding
Emphasize independence, interdependence and child obedience
Scaffolding: adjusting support during teaching to match a child's current level of performance
Scripts: person's knowledge about the sequence of events in a situation
Helps predict what will happen next and guide the behavior
Autobiographical: scaffolded by adults
Helps recall and organize stories
Autobiographical: representation of personally meaningful one-time events
Episodic: 3-6 years old; recalling everyday scenarios with things like time, place, person
Improves between ages 3-6
Scripts: general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation
Parents that use a repetitive approach repeat the same questions with little information, which becomes less effective when helping children recall memories
Elaborative style scaffolds memories to better recall and organize detailed stories
When faced with problems, children try multiple approaches at the same time, then work out which ones were most effective to then create strategies with more efficiency and speed; Creating correct solutions to problems and store them in long term memory
Around age 4, children realize that beliefs and desires influence behavior, which helps them become aware of false beliefs. A false belief is understanding that an individual can hold a belief that doesn't actually align with a situation or reality.
Predict the thoughts or outcomes based on incorrect information
Semantic bootstrapping: using word meanings to figure out grammar rules
Relying on semantics to understand grammar rules
Syntactic bootstrapping: discovering word meanings by how they're used
Phonological awareness: reflect on and manipulate sound structures of a spoken language
Children with more phonological awareness end up having better literacy
Lack of phonological awareness can hinder memory and recall
In early childhood, vocab expands rapidly through “fast mapping” where children connect new words with concepts or encounters
Benefit from multiple exposures and examples consistently in different contexts
Vocab growth relies on a combination of perceptual, social, and linguistic components that improve with age
Toddlers: grasp ordinality
Ordinality: order, or sequence of events. “One after another”
Age 3.5-4: grasp, or mastery, of numbers 1-10 and understand cardinality
Cardinality: understanding that the last number in a sequence shows how many things are in a set. The last number is the total.
Age 4: use counting to learn the ability of estimation
Estimation: make educated guesses without numbers. Allows rough estimates.
All highlight the skill of mathematical development
Errors in theory of mind
Viewing the mind as a place to put passive information
underestimates mental activity and struggle to infer others’ thoughts
Overregularization of grammar, applying them to exceptions
“Goed” instead of “went”
Overextension of “-ed” to past tense
Shows active engagement, even with mistakes
— — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Chapter 10
— — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Self Concept: set of attributes, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines them and who they are.
For children/during this time, it’s mostly observable characteristics
name , physical appearance, possessions, and everyday behaviors
By 3.5, children can describe themselves in terms of emotions and attitudes
By 5, personality assessments match what their parents think
Parent child relationships foster positive, coherent self-concept
Children develop initiative vs guilt
Developing sense of purpose
Exploration and activity initiation
Self esteem: the judgements we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgements
Effects our emotional experience, behavior, and long term psychological adjustment
Age 4: several self-judgements
Learning in school, making friends, getting along with parents, treating others kindly
High self esteem: rate their own ability as high and underestimate task difficulty
Mastery of new skills give a higher self esteem
Children who are criticized and have more emphasis on performance will have higher level of shame and crumble under challenge
Based on spending time with someone the child likes, rather than a mutual trust reliance on each other
Preschoolers show this by greeting each other, complementing, or praising someone else's achievements.
These friendships made are essential for social support
Ease of making friends shows how cooperative they are in a classroom as well as other skills like task persistence and academic skills (specifically for kindergarteners)
Small groups, good teacher-child ratio, and daily activities important for this social competence
Innate moral sense
Social experiences and cognitive factors play in
Conscience begins to take shift in early childhood, but influenced by adults and then eventually becoming inner standards
Preschoolers have rigid moral reasoning and morally relevant experiences are important for moral progress
Psychoanalytic perspective: inducing empathy based guilt is effective in influencing children without coercion
Adult guidance helps in conscience development and providing information on how to behave
Authoritative
Effective
High involvement
Adaptive control
High acceptance
Appropriate autonomy
Permissive
High acceptance
Low involvement
Low control
High autonomy
Authoritarian
Low acceptance
Low involvement
High control
Low autonomy
Uninvolved
Low acceptance
Low involvement
Low control
Indifferent autonomy
Positive relationships with parents create positive self-concepts
Preschoolers develop self-concepts like attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values
Development of high self-esteem helps initiative
Parents play a role in promotion of adaptive skills
“Vigorous unfolding” Ages 3-6
Initiative VS Guilt
Initiative: Eagerness to try new tasks and join others, play permits trying new skills, act out highly visible occupations
Guilt: overly strict superego (conscience) causing too much guilt, related to excessive threat, criticism, and punishment from parents
Helps children develop responsibilities and feel guilt when overstepping boundaries
Emotional understanding enhanced when parents label and explain emotions
Attachment security provides open parent-child communication about feelings, which allow navigation of their own emotions
A component of self-regulation influenced by language, self-talk, and repairing relationships
Effective in influencing children without using correction
Preschoolers anticipate feeling guilty when considering that they would be defying their parent
More common in early childhood
Powerful for guiding children into moral behaviors
Influenced by a combination of environmental and cognition
Gender Schema theory
Children pick up gender stereotype preferences and behaviors from others
Parents and peers
Gender identity linked with decision making and personal behavior or the behavior of others
Categorizations of the world
Both social learning and cognitive development play a role in shaping gender roles and preferences
Nonsocial activity: unoccupied, onlooker behavior, and solitary play
Parallel play: Playing with other children nearby with similar toys, but not necessarily interacting with them
Associative play: engaging in separate activities, but exchanging toys and comments
Cooperative play: common goal or make believe play
