Ap euro period 2 midterm (copy)

1648-1815

Unit 5 : State building and the enlightenment

Buzzwords:

State building

• The Fronde: a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, during the early reign of king Louis XIV, where the nobility’s and Parisian population rebelled against the government.

• Jean - Baptiste Colbert: General of finances for Louis XIV. He used mercantilist policies, built infrastructure, expanded the French navy and was a patron of the arts.

• King Louis XIII: King of France from 1610 to 1643. He relied heavily on his chief ministers. Consolidated royal power.(rise of French absolutism)

• cardinal Richelieu : Chief Minister for King Louis XIII, he strengthened the French monarchy by consolidating royal power, reducing the power of nobility and perusing foreign policy aimed at curbing the Habsburg dynasty.

• King Louis XIV: A prime example of an absolute monarch. Known as the sun king. He reigned over France with immense power, centralizing authority and constructed the palace of Versailles. He had strict religious policies by overturning the edicts of Nantes leading to a large exodus of Huguenots.

• Battle / siege of Vienna : took place September 11-12,1683 when the Ottoman Empire got defeated while trying to take over Vienna. This was seen as a turning point in history as it showed the decline of ottoman expansion and ottoman influence.

• Peter the Great: the tsar of Russia from 1682-1725.He was known for his extensive reforms that modernized Russia and expanded Russian territory. Using his absolutist power he transformed Russian state-building, economic policies.

• King James I: King of England from 1566-1625. James wanted to rule as an absolute monarch while England was in a constitutional monarchy. He claimed Devine right as a king and he established the Church of England as the official religion.he did not like that he could not get money without the consent of the parliament.

• Gentry: a social class of wealthy landowners with significant power in rural areas but they did not possess official noble titles.

• Oliver Cromwell: lead the parliamentarian forces to victory in the English civil war. He became head of state after the execution of King Charles I. His rule was very puritanical, enforcing strict religious policies. He used his military power to suppress opposition. His rule was unstable and lead to the restoration of the monarchy.

• King James II: King of England from 1685-1688. He attempted to promote Catholicism and this created fear of catholic absolutism.

• the Glorious Revolution: pivotal event in 1688 that lead too the overthrow of king James II and the accession to the thrown of William and Mary

• William and Mary: the monarchs that jointly ruled England from 1689-1694. Their reign marked a shift towards constitutional monarchy and the reduction of power of the monarchy

• English Bill of rights: a document passed in 1689 that established the supremacy of the parliament and reduced the power of the monarchy.

• Baroque: style of art and architecture that was characterized by its dramatic effect, ornate decoration, sense of movement and emotional appeal

• Mannerism: art style characterized by its distorted figures, complex composition, unusual color combinations, asymmetry and emotional intensity

Enlightenment

• Montesquieu: most known for his concept of the separation of power which is detailed in his work “the spirit of the Laws”. He argued for dividing political power into the 3 branches to insure checks and balances

• Voltaire: strong advocate of freedom of speech’s religious tolerance and criticism of established church. He often used satire to challenge traditional authority.

• Diderot: wrote the encyclopedia that promoted critical thinking and challenged established norms. He advocated for freedom of expression and accessibility of knowledge. He argued that humans are shaped by their environment and experiences

• John Locke: philosopher recognized for his influential ideas on government, individual rights and the social contract. He created the concept of natural rights of life, liberty and property that the government should protect

• Jean- Jacques Rousseau: philosopher recognized for his concept of the social contract . He strongly criticized social inequality. He believed in the natural goodness of humans but also believed that the good was corrupted by society

• Mary Wollstonecraft: a women’s right advocate. Wrote “A vindication of the rights of Women”

• Salon: social gatherings held in private homes where intellectuals would meet to discuss ideas. Hosted by wealthy women that played a role in shaping the discussions

• Social contract: argues that individuals willingly give up some of their freedoms to form a government that protects their rights and reflects the collective will of the people.

• Physiocrats & economic liberalism: economists that believed in minimal government intervention in the economy. Adam smith.

• Deism, skepticism, atheism: Deism is the belief that there is a supreme being who created the universe but does not intervene. Skepticism is the questioning and doubting traditional beliefs or authority. Atheism is the refusal of the existence of supreme being.

• John Wesley & pietism: Founded the Methodist movement. Encouraged a deeply personal and emotional connection to god over established Christianity and religious rules

• Neoclassicism: an artistic and cultural movement during the 18th century taking inspiration from art and architecture of Ancient Greece emphasizing simplicity, harmony and proportion. Often reflected the ideals of the enlightenment era, conveying moral messages through classical themes and styles

• Johann Sebastian Bach: German composer who significantly contributed to European music in a baroque style

Questions:

Establishment of monarchy:

• Explain the ways in which the nobility attempted to maintain power and influence throughout Europe. How did the rise of absolute monarchy affect the political, social and economic status of the nobility

  • Nobility tried to maintain power through controlling land ownership, serving key roles in the military, political participation and the patronage system. Many Nobility lost their political power as they were dependent on the monarchy for their status. An example of this is Louis XIV in the palace of Versailles. He would have the nobles do small tasks for him, so many nobles would fight to get to do these tasks for status thus making them dependent.

• Describe in detail how King Louis XIV and Colbert centralized the administrative, military, financial, and religious powers of France

  • Louis XIV created a system of intendants that would oversee the provinces. He expanded the army. He reduced the power of the nobility and kept them in the palace of Versailles. He created the east india company to increase France’s international influence. He overturned the Edict of Nantes and made all of France catholic, he also imposed the Gallican articles which gave him control of naming bishops

• Discuss the rise of peter the great and evaluate the causes and effects of his westernization of Russia. Compare and contrast the life of a peasant in Western Europe with that of a peasant in Eastern Europe

  • Peter the great rose in a time when Russia was falling behind Western Europe. Some causes of the westernization was the need to compete on the international stage, social backwardness, and lack of economic development. Some effects of westernization include increased power of Russia, economic growth and social disruption (alienated traditional aristocracy and further entrenched serfdom). In Western Europe peasants had more rights while in Eastern Europe peasants were heavily burdened by serfdom.

States and Individuals:

• Explain the causes of the English civil war and discuss how the outcome of the English civil war and the glorious revolution protected the rights of gentry and aristocracy from absolutism through assertion of the rights of the parliament

  • The English civil war was caused by the power struggle between King Charles and the parliament stemming from Charles attempts to rule as an absolutist (imposing taxes, alienating puritans, belief of Devine right). The outcome of the English civil war and the glorious revolution was a big limit of the power of the monarchy. Parliament had supremacy ensuring that the gentry would have a voice in political decisions and the bill of rights guaranteed some fundamental rights

• Explain the structure of the Dutch government and how it was used to promote trade and respect traditional rights.

  • During the golden age the Dutch government was a confederation of 7 provinces united under a federal government that facilitated trade, promoted religious tolerance and supported commercial ventures like the Dutch East India Company. In each province traditional rights were upheld allowing for strong local economies and social structures.

Diplomacy & War

• Identify the major wars fought during King Louis XIV’s reign, and explain their political/ dynastic causes.

  • During king Louis XIV reign there was the war of devolution, Franco-Dutch wars, nine years’ war and the war of the panfish succession. All of these wars were cause by Louis XIV’s expansionist policies and desire to establish France as the dominant European power.

• Describe how Prussia became a European power between 1700 and 1750

  • Prussia became a European power primarily through the strategic military expansion and the centralizing government policy.

• Explain the Habsburg reaction to the weakening of the Holy Roman Empire and to the ottoman defeat at the battle of Vienna

  • After the weakening of the Holy Roman Empire the Habsburg shifted their focus to Austria and started an anti-ottoman campaign. After the ottoman defeat at the battle of Vienna the Habsburg were able to reclaim territory lost to the ottomans

Art and music

• Explain how baroque and mannerist art/music promoted religious power, religion, and the glorification of state power. List several examples of artists and musicians for each period of art

  • These styles used dramatic, emotional and visually striking imagery to deeply engage viewers. Baroque art was often patronage by the church and was used to make religious narratives more relatable and powerful. Some examples of baroque artists are Caravaggio, Bernini and Rubens. Mannerist art was often patronage by the royal court and reflected the power and idealized beauty of the ruling class. Some mannerist artists are El Greco, Florentino and Bronzino

• Discuss how new movements in music, art and literature reflected bourgeois values as well as new enlightenment ideals of political power and citizenship.

  • These new movements reflected the emphasis on reason, individual merit and social mobility while focusing on the everyday life of the middle class with accessible subject matters making it more relatable for wider audiences

Enlightenment Philosophes

• Describe the application of scientific principles/reasoning to human institutions. What political models and theories were developed by Locke, Hobbes, Montesquieu and Rousseau. How did theories of john Locke challenge absolutism

  • The application of scientific principles was used to improve social structures like the government. Locke is best known for his theory of natural rights that the government should protect. Hobbes believed humans were born selfish and that an absolute monarchy was needed to maintain order. Montesquieu is known for his theory of separation of powers. Rousseau’s concept was general will. Locked challenged absolutism as he believed there was rights the an absolutist ruler would violate and that the people had the right to rebel if these natural rights got violated

• Describe the philosophical arguments of Rousseau and Wollstonecraft. How did he seek to exclude women from political life? What views countered Rousseau in regards to women. Explain how Rousseau questioned the exclusive reliance and reason and emphasized the role of emotions in the moral improvement of self society

  • Rousseau argued that women had a limited domestic role while Wollstonecraft argued that women should have full participation in politics and public life. Rousseau often argued that nature made it so that women should be mothers and mothers only and men were more fit for education.

• Explain how new economic theories such as those of Adam smith challenged mercantilism

  • New economic theories of the time stressed that the government should not involve itself in the government and this challenged mercantilism as the government was heavily involved in economic affaires with the mercantilism system

Spread of the enlightenment

• How did new institutions, such as salons, explore and disseminate enlightenment culture

  • Salons provided a social space where intellectuals from many different backgrounds could openly discuss new ideas and effectively act as a platform for the spread of enlightened progressive thoughts.

• What was the impact of printed materials such as the encyclopedia on the development of public opinion

  • Printed material allowed for the spread of ideas that fostered debate and discussions among the population which led to a more informed public sphere.

• How did new ideas in the natural sciences, literature and popular culture increasingly exposed Europeans to representation of people outside of Europe.

  • With the spread of travel narratives and studies on different cultures allowed many people learned about how other people outside of Europe see the world.

Religion

• Discuss how new philosophies sought to make religion a private rather than public concern and how that led to the demand of religious toleration

  • Individuals of different faiths wanted to be able to practice their personal private beliefs with out government interference. This shift was driven by the idea the different religions could coexist if people were allowed to freely choose their religious practices.

• Explain how intellectual such as Voltaire and Diderot began to apply the principles of the scientific revolution to society and human institutions. Describe the new philosophies of deism, skepticism and atheism

  • Using reason, the existing social and political structures were often critiqued and reforms were advocated for. The authority of the church was often questioned leafing to the growth of deism(the belief of a supreme being creating the world but not having an active role), Skepticism(the questioning of religious institutions) and Atheism( Rejecting the concept of a god)

Unit 6: The 18th Century

Buzzwords:

• Seven years war: A major global conflict that took place between 1756 and 1763 over colonial territory. Shifted the balance of power towards Britain.

• Fredrick Williams of Prussia: king of Prussia. built Prussia into a highly militarized state and established Prussia as a major European power.

• Fredrick II of Prussia: King of Prussia from 1740-1786. Known as a military genius. He Implemented significant reforms and promoted religious tolerance.

• Maria Theresa of Austria: empress of Austria who reformed the Habsburg empire through social and economic initiatives. Faced many challenges like the war of Austrian succession

• Joseph II of Austria: king of Austria who was considered a key example of enlightened absolutist rulers. He extensively reformed Austria with reforms like abolishing serfdom and promotion of religious toleration.

• Catherine the great: empress of Russia 1762-1796. Known for expanding Russian territory and her efforts to westernize Russia. Was an enlightened absolutist.

• Partitions of Poland: a series of three divisions of Poland where Russia, Prussia and Austria progressively split up the territory whipping Poland off the map.

• Agricultural Revolution: a period of technological advancement, political reforms and the introduction of new crops

• Cottage industry / putting out system: a system where raw materials were distributed to home for processing and then collected for sale by merchants

• Bank of England: founded in 1694 as a central bank to manage the governments debts.

• Enlightened absolutism: A political system in which absolute monarchs adopted policies inspired by enlightened ideas like education, religious toleration and legal reforms.

• Enclosure movement: a process where wealthy landowners fenced off previously communal land, displacing peasant farmers and contributed to urbanization due to the loss of their land access.

• The grand tour: a journey through Europe undertaken by wealthy young men where they would learn about new cultures, art and architecture as a part of their education.

• Lady Mary wortley: An English aristocrat and advocate for smallpox inoculation in the 18th century.

Questions:

Rivalries & Balance of power

• Describe the rivalries, both commercial and political, between European nations. Explain the impact of the rivalries on the balance of power.

  • The main rivalry was between France and Great Britain while other powers like Austria and Prussia also wanting influence. This led to many conflicts over colonies trade routes and territories, ending with the balance of power shifting to Britain.

Power between state and individual

• Explain the concept of enlightened solution and its absolutism and its implementation in Prussia, Austria and Russia

  • Enlightened absolutism is a form of governing where absolute monarchs implemented ideas from the enlightenment while still maintaining their absolute power. They used reforms to rule for the good of the people. Fredrick the great Cathrine the great and Joseph II used their absolute power for reforms regarding religious toleration, education and economics

Politics and Diplomacy

• Explain the reason for the weakness of the polish state and its subsequent partition between Austria, Prussia and Russia

  • Poland did not have an absolute monarch and a centralized government leading to nobility having immense power. Due to this lack of centralized authority Poland was vulnerable to external pressures. This lead to Austria, Prussia and Russia to be able to take over polish territory with the challenge

• Describe how the limitation of the Holy Roman Empire led to the rise of Prussia and the Habsburg focusing on expansion in the east

  • The Holy Roman Empire was loosing much of its power and because of this Prussia was able to take over some of the territory. Also due to this lack of power of the HRE the Habsburg started to focus more on expanding in Eastern Europe including Hungary and the Balkans.

Global expansion of European markets

• How did the markets move away from government restriction and how did this free market lead to new financial practices?

  • The markets started to become deregulated which lead to increased competition between companies. There was more international trade, the start of Banking systems and stoke exchange

• Discuss the effect of new products on food supply and the social impacts of the consumer revolution

  • With new products in food supply caused a rise in the food supply which lead to more money freed up for other things like art which caused a shift towards a consumer culture where buying more leisure things was normalized

• Describe the agricultural revolution and its impact on population and the food supply what was the impact of reduced diseases and increased food supply

  • The agricultural revolution was a time in which there was new technology and political changes in regard to agriculture. These changes caused there to be a large per supply of food available for the population. This caused there to be a large increase of population as more people could eat and had more money to reproduce. Disease was reduced because of the improved nutrition and more stable food supply

Societal Changes

• Describe the overall demographic changes during the 18th century.

  • During the 18th century there was a noticeable population increase due to the improvement of medical and agricultural practices. During this period there was growing urbanization due to the migration of people from farms to urban areas.

Unit 7: The French Revolution and Napoleon

Buzzwords

• Estates General: a legislative body in pre-revolutionary France that represented the tree social classes

• Cahiers de doleances: the lists of grievances complied by each of the 3 social classes that got submitted to the king before the estates-general meeting.

• National Assembly: A revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the 3rd estate. (Tennis court oath)

• National guard: military force formed during the French Revolution to maintain order and protect the revolutionary government.

• Declaration of the rights of man and citizen: A document that outlines fundamental individual rights like liberty, property and security, based on enlightenment principles.

• Declaration of the rights of women and female citizen: a document that advocates for women’s rights, written by Olympic de gouges. It argued that women should have the same rights outlined in the declaration of the rights of man and citizen.

• March on Versailles: a pivotal event where a large group of women ,motivated by food shortages and economic distress, marched from Paris to the royal parish at Versailles.

• Assignats: the paper money issued by the French government used during the French Revolution.acted as government bonds backed by the value of confiscated church lands, meant to stimulate Frances economy as a quick means to pay off national debt.

• Civil constitution of the clergy: A law passed during the French Revolution that a aimed to significantly restructure the Catholic Church in France by placing it under the state control.

• Jacobin club: a radical political group during the French Revolution known for their strong republican views and significant influence in pushing for revolutionary action

• Declaration of pillnitz: a joint statement issued in august of 1791 by Leopoldo II and Fredrick William II which threatened to intervene militarily if the French monarchy was farther threatened.

• Sans-culottes: radical, working class masses of Paris.

• Georges Danton: leader of the jacobins who played a crucial role in the early stages of the revolution especially in the establishment of the committee of public safety.

• Robespierre: A radical leader within the jacobin club and in the reign of terror. Advocated for a “republic of virtue”

• National convention: the revolutionary assembly that governed France during the early years of the French Revolution, responsible for abolishing the monarchy and declaring France a republic.

• Committee of public safety: a apolitical body formed during the reign of terror that was responsible for protecting the the new republic from internal and external threats.

• Dechristianization: The radical attempt to remove the influence of the church from French society by getting rid of religious institutions and symbols like changing the closing church’s, destroying art and changing the calendar.

• The directory the French government established after the reign of terror consisting of a five member executive committee.

• The consulate: the French government established after the overthrow of the directory in 1799, lead by napoleon

• Napoleon code: A set of laws implemented by napoleon that established legal uniformity across France, abolished feudal privileges, guaranteed property rights and promoting equality before the law.

• Concordat of 1801: an agreement that recognized Catholicism as the religion of the majority of French citizens but ensured that religious freedom was granted to non-Catholics

• Secret police/ censorship: a force established which was used to monitor and suppress political dissent.

• Continental system: Napoleon implemented as an attempt to cripple Britain’s economy by forbidding European countries allied with France from trading with Britain

• Nationalism: Political ideology where people strongly identify with their nation, often advocating for self determination.

• The hundred days: the period between when napoleon returned to power in France after his excise and when he was defeated at the battle of Waterloo and forced into a second exile.

• Congress of Vienna: a conference held where European powers aimed to reorganized the continent and restore stability after the Napoleonic Wars

• Balance of power: a concept where European nations aimed to prevent one country from becoming too powerful.

• Haitian Revolution: A slave revolt lead by Toussaint Louverture who was inspired by enlightenment ideas. This lead to the establishment of Haiti

Questions

• What were the causes of the French Revolution

  • The causes of the French Revolution were enlightenment ideas, King Louis XVI, Financial problems, The estate system, social injustice and lack of food.

• What were the main characteristics and events of the first stage of the revolution and its effects on the constitution monarchy, popular participation, the church and the nobility

  • There was the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the creation of the National Assembly which caused increased popular presentation, there was the abolishment of feudal privileges and the church lost power. A key characteristic was moderate leadership. Some key events include the storming of the bastille, the declaration of the rights of man and citizen and the kings relocation to Paris.

• Examine the domestic and international goals of Robespierre and the jacobins in the regards to gov and the economy during the reign of terror

  • During the reign of terror the goal was to establish a radical, centralized republic in France focused on achieving domestic equality through strict government control. All counter-revolutionary deals were suppressed through extreme violence. Domestically the goals were to have economic control, centralized power and social equality while the international goals included Revolutionary alliances, war of liberation and spreading revolutionary ideals

• Why was it important that the revolutionary army was formed by mass conscription and discuss why the changes lead it to its success

  • It was important that the revolutionary army was formed by mass conscription because it gave the arm the ability to be very large. This lead to the success of the army as it was able to win more battles due to the sheer size.

• Describe the participation of women in the French Revolution. What was the impact of the revolution on the legal status of women

  • Women did not gain full political rights during the French Revolution however the participated in the revolution through political activism which improved the legal status of women

• How did Napoleon defend the ideals of the enlightenment through his various domestic reforms but at the same time curtailed rights gained during the French Revolution

  • Napoleon used enlightenment ideals when he established legal rights for all men, abolished feudal privileges and gave property rights. However he limited rights through limiting women’s rights and restricted the freedom of speech

• Describe Napoleon new military tactics. How did his tactics and policies allow the French empire to exert direct and indirect control across Europe

  • His new military tactic involved rapid movement of troops which exploited enemy weaknesses and he used surprise attacks. This allowed for him to take over Europe as he swiftly defeated other armies and forced them to submit to French rule or forced alliance. He put his family or friends in charge of some of the newly acquired territory.

• Discuss how the exportation of French revolutionary ideals caused revolts in other nations, particularly in Haiti

  • The ideals of liberty and equality fueled other nations to have their own revolt. A notable revolution was the Haitian revolution in which many slaves were inspired by the French Revolution to uprise against their masters.

• Explain how napoleons expanding empire created nationalistic responses throughout Europe. How did the congress of Vienna attempt to restore the traditional order in Europe

  • As Napoleon expanded his territory many people in these territories identified as not French and this led to the rise of nationalism. The congress of Vienna sought to reduce the power of France by returning all of the land to the previous owners and strengthen the areas around France to contain it

• Describe the main arguments of the critics of the revolution

  • Many argue that it fixed nothing and was a ton of blood shed for nothing as many

PERIOD SUMMERY:

Absolutism and constitutionalism: Absolutism rose due to the weakened influence of the Catholic Church (growing acceptance of protestantism and lack of interest in political wars after the peace of Westphalia), the expansion of the merchant class during the period of globe trade(They desired economic and political stability that an absolute monarchist could provide and power started shifting from nobility to the new merchant class. The fronds allowed for to rise to power Louis XIV. Louis and his financial advisor Joan-Batista Colbert introduced many reforms to consolidate power under Louis. One of these reforms was the Intendant system (Louis had people sent to the districts of France in order to make sure that they followed his policies. This undermined local governments). Another way Louis reduced the power of nobles was when he had nobles in his palace in order to keep an eye on them and demand their loyalty (he made them fight over getting to do every day tasks for him). Louis revoked the edict of Nantes because he wanted everyone under his rule to be catholic which led to brain drain in France as many Huguenots fled. Louis made himself the head of the Catholic Church in France. Louis Expanded his army and waged many wars and this was funded through Jean Baptists-Colbert use of mercantilist policies which decreased France’s debt, breathed new life into domestic industries, expanded France’s colonial holdings and created a favorable balance of trade. Peter the great of Russia took over while Russia was lagging behind the rest of Europe in policy. Some reforms of peter the great included Requiring nobles to serve in the army or civil administration, the creation of the table of ranks, reorganized the Russian Orthodox Church by eliminating the role of patriarch and the westernization of Russia. Peter tripled taxes and this made him very unlikable however his work to westernize Russia made Russia part of the mainstream development of Europe. England was moving towards constitutionalism. The English civil war from 1642-1651 settled how much power the monarchy had. The doctrine of the devine right of kings and James I believed this. He thought that he was a king because of god and anything that took away any of his power was against god. The Magna Carta which created the English parliament and controlled the money of France, this made sure the monarchy never had absolute power. Charles I took over after James I. Charles I believed in his Devine right and believed that he could take over land whenever the wanted to but the parliament shut this down. Tensions between the parliament and grew when England was in debt from the 30 years war and Charles wanted to spend money to raise an army without the parliament meeting. The Long parliament was created which lied to the Triennial act which forced the parliament to meet at least once every three years limiting the kings power. Charles I refused to purify the church of Catholicism and married a catholic which led to even more tension. The English civil war was a conflict between the king, parliament and other elites over their role in the political structure. The parliaments new model army was victorious over the king but Charles refused to give up his throne. Oliver Cromwell led an army and beat the kings army. He took over the throne and kicked out any member of parliament they disagreed with him. Cromwell got drunk with power and turned England into a dictatorship. By 1660 the parliament restored the monarchy and gave the throne to Charles II then to James II. Both of them were not good leaders so the parliament offered the throne to James’s daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. James II fled when he found out this plan and Willam and Mary took the throne, this is known as the Glorious Revolution. The idea of the Devine right of kings was ended and a constitutional monarchy was created through the English bill of rights. The dutch government was an oligarchy with rich people who represented each providence of the Netherlands(States General). The States general was not really a representative government as the leaders where the top class of the population who passed bills in their interests. After the peace of Westphalia the main reason of wars was to maintain the balance of power. The partition of Poland was when Poland was taken over because of weak leadership. Russia, Prussia and Austria split up Poland. In the battle of Vienna the Ottoman Empire tried to expand into Austria but Austria prevented this and this ended ottoman expansion. The war of Spanish succession was a war to maintain the balance of power so that France and Spain wouldn’t become too powerful. Many European nations were expanding their armies at the time and the nations did found themselves on the winning side of the balance of power. During this period work and trade was less restricted by the government in England. Goods were made in peoples homes, this was known as the cottage industry or the putting out system. The growth of the market economy and the reduced amount of money spent on food increased the want for manufactured goods. There was a rise in the insurance industry, venture capital and specialized banks. Europeans dominate the worlds economy because of the colonies and mercantilism.

The enlightenment: The enlightenment started in France as a response to the absolutist control at the time. One enlightenment thinker was Voltaire, he was very critical of the lack of religious tolerance in France, he believed in natural rights and freedom but did not believe that people could govern themselves. Diderot was another enlightened thinker and he wrote the encyclopedia which was a book that rationalized everything. Voltaire came up with deism which was a line of thinking that there was a god but they did not intervene with human affairs. Religion was started to be seen as a private concern not a public concern. Pietism was the belief that religion was experienced through personal connections over going to church. Natural rights was the idea that humans had rights just by being human (life, liberty and property). John Locke believed that these rights were given by god and not the government. He believed these rights cannot be taken away by the government and must protect the rights. Rousseau believed in the social contract and that men and women were fundamentally different and that there should be rigid gender roles. Mary Wollstonecraft was another enlightened thinker That argued women were inferior because they didn’t have the same opportunities as men. Adam smith used enlightenment thinking and applied it to the economy. He argued against the mercantilist policies and that the government should not involve itself in the economy. Salons were meetings of intellectuals hosted by rich women and helped the spread of enlightenment ideas. At the time some monarchs became Enlightened Absolutist. These leaders acted in enlightened ways when it benefited them and they were very short-sighted in the reforms they created. Fredrick The great of Prussia is one of these Enlightened Absolutists as he had many reforms to benefit the people(freedom of speech, patronizing enlightenment thinkers, reformed the judicial system). Many of these reforms undermined the nobility and gave Fredrick more power. Catherine the great of Russia is another e nlightened absolutist as she outlawed torture, reformed education and patronized the arts. There was a huge population boom due to the agricultural revolution, decreasing death rates and increasing birth rates/children making it through childhood. There was a large scale migration from rural to urban areas in search of work. Many people were reading at this time and this lead to an increase of censorship. During this time many people wrote on their travels and this exposed Europeans to cultures outside their own and challenged their social norms.