Respiratory System

• Ensures the body receives necessary oxygen.

• Body cells use oxygen to make energy from food.

Parts of the Respiratory System

• Nasal Cavity:

  • Filters harmful particles from inhaled air.

  • Moistens and warms the air.

• Epiglottis:

  • A tissue flap at the back of the mouth.

  • Prevents food from entering the trachea.

• Pharynx:

  • Also known as the throat.

  • A muscular tube that divides into two passageways: Larynx (air) and Esophagus (food).

• Larynx:

  • Also called the voice box.

  • Contains the epiglottis for proper routing of food and air.

  • Passageway for air.

• Trachea:

  • Also known as the windpipe.

  • Tubelike structure serving as the main air passageway to the lungs.

• Lungs:

  • Main organs of the respiratory system.

  • Sponge-like organs in the chest cavity.

  • Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.

    • Bronchi (singular: Bronchus):

      • Two passageways branching from the trachea to each lung.

      • Three bronchi in the right lung, two in the left (due to the heart's position).

    • Bronchioles:

      • Smallest respiratory passageways in the lungs.

    • Alveoli (singular: Alveolus):

      • Air sacs that inflate and deflate during breathing.

• Diaphragm:

  • Essential for inhalation and exhalation.

  • Contracts and relaxes to enable breathing.

  • Dome-shaped muscle below the lungs that expands and compresses them.

The Breathing Process

• Inhalation:

  • Diaphragm contracts and pulls downward.

  • Lung volume increases, air pressure decreases, and air flows in.

• Exhalation:

  • Diaphragm relaxes and moves upward.

  • Air is pushed out of the lungs.

  • Ribs move in and down.

Detailed Steps of Breathing

1. Inhaling:

   • Diaphragm moves down, ribcage expands.

   • Air flows in through the nose and mouth.

   • Air moves past the epiglottis into the trachea and bronchi.

2. Inside the Lungs:

   • Bronchi divide into bronchioles.

   • Air flows into alveoli.

   • Oxygen moves from air into bloodstream via capillaries, and carbon dioxide moves from blood into alveoli.

3. Exhaling:

   • Diaphragm moves up, ribs move in and down.

   • Air (containing carbon dioxide) moves back through bronchioles, bronchi, trachea, and out through the nose or mouth.

Problems of the Respiratory System

• Asthma: Airways are narrowed.

• Cold / Flu: Illness caused by viruses.

• Emphysema: Alveoli lose their ability to stretch.

• Lung Cancer: Uncontrolled growth of cells in the lungs.

• Mouth and Tongue Cancer: Uncontrolled growth of cells, caused by tobacco use.

• Pneumonia: Bacterial or viral disease affecting the lungs.

• Tuberculosis: Bacterial disease affecting the lungs.

• Smoking can cause cancers of the mouth, throat, lung, kidney, and bladder.

• Smokeless tobacco causes mouth, head, and neck cancer.

Nervous System

Functions

1. Gathers information

2. Transmits information

3. Processes information

4. Sends information

Components

• Central Nervous System (CNS):

  • Main organs: Brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

  • Main parts: Neurons (nerve cells).

  • Sends information to the spinal cord, which transmits it to the brain.

  • Connects the CNS to organs, limbs, and skin.

  • Regulates involuntary body functions (heartbeat, breathing).

Neurons (Nerve Cells)

• Basic unit of communication in the nervous system.

Parts of a Neuron

• Cell Body:

  • Contains nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles.

• Dendrites:

  • Receive and carry information toward the cell body.

  • A neuron can have multiple dendrites.

• Axon:

  • Long, tail-like fiber extending from the cell body.

  • Carries messages away from the cell body.

  • Each neuron has only one axon.

• Myelin Sheath:

  • Covers the axon, speeding up nerve impulse travel.

• Axon Terminals:

  • Feather-like fibers splitting from the axon.

  • Pass messages to dendrites of other neurons.

• Synapse:

  • Small gap between neurons where signals are passed.

Types of Neurons

• Sensory Neuron (Afferent Neuron):

  • Carries information to the brain.

  • Receives initial stimuli from sense organs.

• Interneuron (Connector Neuron):

  • Connects sensory and motor neurons.

  • Located in the brain and spinal cord.

  • Sends messages from sensory to motor neurons.

• Motor Neuron (Efferent Neuron):

  • Carries information from the brain.

  • Receives messages from the brain and spinal cord and sends them to muscles or glands.

The Brain

• Protected by the skull and three layers of skin called meninges.

• Bathed by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

• Contains approximately 100 billion neurons in a mature human brain.

Parts of the Brain

• Cerebrum:

  • Largest region of the brain.

  • Surface called the cerebral cortex: where learning, intelligence, and judgment occur.

  • Controls voluntary activities.

• Corpus Callosum:

  • Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

• Cerebellum:

  • Regulates balance, posture, movement, and muscle coordination.

• Pons:

  • Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum.

• Medulla Oblongata:

  • Controls involuntary actions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.

• Thalamus:

  • Relay station for incoming messages from the spinal cord to appropriate brain parts.

• Hypothalamus:

  • Monitors internal conditions to maintain stability.

  • Controls body temperature and sleep cycles.

• Pituitary Gland:

  • Gland attached to the base of the brain that secretes hormones.

Spinal Cord

• Thick bundle of nerve fibers running from the brain to the hip area.

• Relays nerve impulses to and from the brain.

• Protected by the spinal column/spine, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Reflex Arc/Action

• Sudden and involuntary response to a stimulus.

Cerebral Lobes of the Brain

• Frontal Lobe:

  • Judgment, reasoning, problem-solving, voluntary movement.

• Parietal Lobe:

  • Sense of touch, taste, and smell.

  • Academic skills, math calculations.

• Occipital Lobe:

  • Reading, visual interpretation.

• Temporal Lobe:

  • Memory, hearing, feelings, musical awareness.

Parts of the Spinal Cord in Reflex Arc

1. Stimulus

2. Receptor

3. Sensory Neuron

4. Interneuron

5. Motor Neuron

6. Effector (muscle)

Good and Bad Habits Affecting the Nervous and Respiratory Systems

Respiratory System

• Good Habits:

  • Avoid smoking/vaping.

  • Exercise regularly.

  • Breathing exercises.

  • Eating well.

• Bad Habits:

  • Smoking/Vaping.

  • Lack of movement.

  • Poor indoor air quality.

  • Exposure to air pollution.

Nervous System

• Good Habits:

  • Sleep.

  • Healthy diet.

  • Meditation.

  • Good stress management.

• Bad Habits:

  • Poor sleeping habits.

  • Too much exposure to negative news.

  • Too much sugar.

  • Social isolation.

Extra Information

• Flow of respiratory system:

  • Nasal Cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchus/Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli

• Neurons are the basic functional units of the nervous system.

• Hypothalamus controls body temperature and sleep cycles.

• Brainstem controls the pons and breathing.

• Right side of the brain controls the left side of the body, and vice versa.

• The brain has grey and white matter.

MUSIC

Wayang Kulit

• In Indonesia, wayangs are theatrical presentations based on the epic stories and myths of the Mahabharata and Ramayana from India.

• Wayang Kulit is a puppet play using puppets made of water buffalo or goat skin, creating shadows when illuminated. The puppets are mounted on sticks

• Puppet size ranges from ~10 to 30 inches.

• Themes focus on the struggle between good and evil.

• Origins traced back to India.

Dalang (Puppet Master) Functions

• Chooses and narrates story relevant to the community, often addressing current issues and solutions.

• Interprets character voices.

• Handles puppets patiently.

• Manipulates puppets against a white screen with oil or electric lamp lights, projecting their shadows.

• Often designs puppets and passes skills to younger family members.

• Produces all puppet sounds along with singing and special effects.

• Signals musical accompaniment.

• Speaks several languages.

• Consecrates the performance with meditative tunes.

Musical Accompaniment

• Accompanied by gamelan orchestra providing appropriate music for each scene.

• Categorized by metrical and nonmetrical music.

Metrical Music

• Beats are grouped into measures (gatras in Indonesia).

• Regular metrical forms have consistent beat/gong structures within each gatra.

• Gong ageng marks the end of the beat cycle (gongan).

• Kenong divides the cycle into two or four sections (kenongan).

Regular Metrical Forms

• Lancaran - sixteen beats per gongan, divided into four kenongan

• Ketawang - sixteen beats per gongan, divided into two 8-beat kenongan

• Ladrang - thirty-two beats per gongan, divided into four 8-beat kenongan.

Irregular Metrical Forms

• Ayak-ayakan - two kenongs per gatra

• Srepegan - four kenongs per gatra

• Sampak - eight kenongs per gatra

Nonmetrical Music

• Lacks a definite meter. Timing, phrasing, and rhythm are defined by purpose and composition.

Nonmetrical Pieces

• Tembang or Sekar - songs sung solo, accompanied by gender, as an introduction or interlude.

• Pathetan - used to commence a scene, establish mood/tonality; played by gender, gambang, suling, rebab, and voice.

• Ado-ado - played by suling, gender, and voice; the most common piece.

Kabuki

• Originated in the Edo period (1603-1868) in Japan; associated with lower classes.

• The word “kabuki” is made of three kanji characters: "songs" (ka), "dance" (bu), and "skill" (ki), meaning "the art of dancing and singing".

• Composed of elements like plot, music, dramatic content, dance, makeup, stage, and costume.

• Training starts in childhood.

• All performers are men, wearing stylized makeup and elaborate costumes.

• Does not use masks; makeup indicates roles (heroes, villains, women, children).

• Narrating story, movements, and facial expressions are overstressed.

Kabuki Music

• Used to set the mood and provide cues for actors.

• Performed live; musicians may change/shift musical plans.

• Musicians keep records of drafts in notebooks called tsukecho.

Types of Kabuki Music

• Can be instrumental or vocal.

  • Instrumental pieces are called aikata.

• Gidayubushi:

  • Narrative music using shamisen.

• Shimoza ongaku:

  • Music played in kuromisu (lower seats below the stage).

• Debayashi or Degatari:

  • Played on the kabuki stage to heighten the effect.

Musical Instruments

• Ensemble includes shamisen and percussion, especially drums, accompanying chanting.

• Shamisen:

  • A flat backed, three-stringed plucked instrument played with a bone plectrum called bachi.

Peking Opera

• Developed in the late eighteenth century; an amalgamation of music, songs, art, dance, and gymnastic stunts.

• It is the most symbolic and important theater in China.

• Represents character and actions through gestures rather than words.

Features

• Themes focus on philosophical teachings (Confucius), Buddhism, emperors/generals, combat, love, and adventure.

• Classified into civilian (vocal music) and military (gymnastic stunts); others combine both.

• Words and dialogue use Beijing dialect.

• Fundamental elements: chang (vocal music), nian (dialogue), zuo (acting), and da (martial arts).

• Zuo: body movement of dancing and acting.

• Da: stunts performed in martial arts.

• Costumes derived from Ming Dynasty clothing.

• Facial makeup: colors have meanings (red = faithful/brave, yellow/white = deceitful).

Roles

• Sheng: male protagonist (old, tongue, red-faced, young boy, or military man).

• Dan: female protagonist role.

• Jing: male supporting character.

• Chou: clowns.

Peking Opera Music

• Chang: vocal music uses xipi and erhuang styles

• Tunes categorized into rhythmic patterns, qupai, and aria.

  • Rhythmic Patterns: Percussion instruments

  • Qupai: Instrumental fixed-tune melodies (shui long yin/“water dragon tune”)

  • Arias: vocal style prioritizing melody over lyrics

• Vocal style uses high tones and nasal quality due to tonal Chinese language.

• Meter: uses the duple meter (is a musical meter characterized by two beats per measure.) Types of instruments used during Xipi.

  • Xipi: Intensely emotional style; strings tuned to A and D, producing loud melodies.

  • Erhuang: Mysterious/melancholy style; tuned to C and G, producing low, soft, and sad tunes.

Musical Instruments

String Instruments

• Jinghu: A small two-stringed bowed instrument producing high tones.

• Yueqin: Four-stringed plucked instrument with a full-moon-shaped resonator.

• Sanxian: Three-stringed plucked instrument

• Hu-chin: fiddle held upright, nasal tonal quality, used to accompany singing

• Erhu: two-stringed fiddle.

• P’ip’a: four-stringed lute.

• San hsien: banjo-like chordophone with three strings.

Wind Instruments

• Di: bamboo flute

• Sheng: reed pipe.

• Suona: horn

Percussion Instruments

• Gu: A high-pitched drum

• Ban: bamboo clappers

• Luo: gong

• Bo: cymbals.

• Zhong: bell

Types of Orchestra

• Wenchang Orchestra:

  • Vocal music type.

  • Composed of wind and stringed instruments, producing soft and mellow tones.

• Wuchang Orchestra:

  • Accompaniment for acrobatic stunts/military types.

  • Mostly percussion, producing intense rhythmic accompaniment.

Arts

Asian Festivals

Loi Krathong

• Also known as the "Festival of Lights."

• Celebrated during the full moon of the 12th lunar month in Thailand (around November).

• Celebrated for thanksgiving and respect to the gods.

• Symbolizes letting go of negativity.

• Originated from Hindu traditions, adapted by Buddhists.

• Some pray to the water goddess Kong Kai, some for secular purposes.

• Krathong: float made of banana plant shaped like a lotus containing candles, incense, and flowers.

• Khom Loi: sky lantern made of rice paper on a bamboo frame with a candle; believed to send bad luck away.

Kodo Taiko

• A three-day music festival held in August where traditional drums are played in a nontraditional way.

Nihama Taiko

• A harvest festival every October 16-18, where big drums are paraded by men.

Definitions

• Taiko: barrel-shaped drum

• O-daiko: “big taiko”

• Chite: taiko drummer

• Happi coat: jacket worn

• Obi: belt worn

• Hachimaki: white headband

• Tabi: shoes with separate big toe.

Chinese New Year (Spring Festival)

• Celebrated at the 1st lunar month of the Chinese calendar somewhere between January 21st to February 20th

• Celebrates the new year and wishes for prosperity.

• A secular holiday that includes rituals and traditions from Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, ancient myths, and folk religions.

• Chuxi: New Year's Eve dinner

• Ang Pao: Money envelope

• Tikoy: Sticky glutinous rice

• Firecrackers: To scare evil spirits.

• Dragon: Represents prosperity and luck

Diwali (Festival of Lights)

• Celebrated around October or November for 5 days, on the 15th day of the 8th month of the Hindu calendar

• Means "rows of light" or "lightning"; displaying of lamps.

• Celebration of the victory of good over evil, light over dark, knowledge over ignorance.

  • Day 1: clean houses, buy gold, shop for utensils

  • Day 2: Rangoli-making to bring prosperity

  • Day 3: family reunion and praying

  • Day 4: Hindu New Year, exchange gifts

  • Day 5: Brothers visit married sisters’ house

• Rangoli: intricate and colorful patterns made from colored sand, rice, and flower petals; bring prosperity.

Eid al-Fitr (Festival of Breaking the Fast)

• A three-day festival marking the end of Ramadan (month-long fasting).

• Celebrated around the 9th month of the Islamic calendar.

• Involves prayers, visits to mosques, family reunions, visiting deceased relatives, exchanging gifts, charitable acts, giving eidiyah to children.

Eid al-Adha (Festival of the Sacrifice)

• Also a three-day festival on the 10th/last month of the Islamic calendar.

• Marks the last day of Hajj (holy pilgrimage to Mecca).

• Honors Ibrahim’s willingness to sacrifice his son Ishmael to prove his love to Allah.

Asian Theater

• Accompanies music and lyrical movement with an abundance of puppet plays.

• Heavily influenced by religion, preserves traditions, and originates from religious rituals, animal mimicry, and storytelling.

Wayang Kulit

• Originated from Indonesia; based on the Ramayana and Mahabarata.

• Uses puppeteers (dalang) and musicians (gamelan orchestra).

• Puppets made of buffalo hide and bamboo sticks.

• Stage: linen screen and a lamp.

Peking Opera

• Includes stories (Civil (Wenxi), Military (Wuxi)), the stage is in the shape of a square with only tables, curtains, and chairs.

• Uses different colors with different meanings to symbolize characters.

• Theatrical performance originates from China.

• Roles: Sheng(man), Dan(women), Jing(rough men, warriors, heroes) and Chou(comedic roles, or clowns).

Kabuki

• Originated from Japan; consists of Jidaimono (historical), Sewamono (domestic), and Shosagoto (dance-drama).

• Stage parts: footbridge or hanamichi, mawari-butai or revolving stage, and seri.

• Uses Kesho for makeup with oshiroi (white powder) and colored lines (kumadori) ; only male actors play.

Physical Education

Basketball

• Team sport played by two teams with five active players each.

• Objective: score by shooting the ball through the basket; team with more points wins.

• Dr. James Naismith: inventor of basketball, born in 1861 in Ramsay township, near Almonte, Ontario, Canada.

• Invented in December 1891 in Springfield Massachusetts.

• Naismith created an indoor activity for students during winter.

James Naismith’s Thirteen Rules of Basketball

1. The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands.

2. The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands, but never with the fist.

3. A player cannot run with the ball. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, allowance to be made for a man running at good speed.

4. The ball must be held in or between the hands. The arms or body must not be used for holding it.

5. No shouldering, holding, pushing, striking, or tripping in any way of an opponent. The first infringement of this rule by any person shall count as a foul; the second shall disqualify him until the next goal is made or, if there was evident intent to injure the person, for the whole of the game. No substitution shall be allowed.

6. A foul is striking at the ball with the fist, violations of Rules 3 and 4 and such as described in Rule 5.

7. If either side makes three consecutive fouls it shall count as a goal for the opponents (consecutive means without the opponents in the meantime making a foul).

8. A goal shall be made when the ball is thrown or batted from the ground into the basket and stays there, providing those defending the goal do not touch or disturb the goal. If the ball rests on the edge and the opponents move the basket, it shall count as a goal.

9. When the ball goes out of bounds, it shall be thrown into the field and played by the first person touching it. In case of dispute, the umpire shall throw it straight into the field. The thrower-in is allowed five seconds. If he holds it longer, it shall go to the opponent. If any side persists in delaying the game, the umpire shall call a foul on them.

10. The umpire shall be the judge of the men and shall note the fouls and notify the referee when three consecutive fouls have been made. He shall have the power to disqualify men according to Rule 5.

11. The referee shall be the judge of the ball and decide when it is in play in bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall keep the time. He shall decide when a goal has been made and keep account of the goals with any other duties that are usually performed by a referee.

12. The time shall be two 15-minute halves with five minutes' rest between.

13. The side making the most goals in that time shall be declared the winner.

Facilities and Equipment

1. Playing Court

   • 94x50 feet, or 28x15 meters

   • Rectangular floor with tiles at either end.

   • Usually made of wood (maple), highly polished indoors.

   • Outdoor surfaces are generally made from standard paving materials such as concrete or asphalt

2. The Ball

   • Made of rubber or leather.

   • Circumference: 75 cm (boys), 72 cm (girls).

   • Weight: 567-650 grams.

   • Bounce: 1.80 m and not less than 1.20 m.

3. The Rim/Goal/Basket/Ring

   • Iron ring with a net.

   • Rim diameter: 18 inches (46 cm).

   • Height: 10 feet (3.0 m).

   • Attached to a backboard, typically steel with glass backboard.

   • Net made of white cord is suspended at the ring.

Fundamental Skills in Basketball

1. Passing

   • Advances the ball to a teammate.

   • a. Chest Pass: most common pass, used for short distances at chest level; not effective if an opponent is in the way.

   • b. Bounce Pass: like the chest pass, the ball bounces into the receiver’s hands.

   • c. One-Hand Underhand Pass: The pass will be used with the throwing pattern during the game.

   • d. Shoulder Pass /one-handed push pass: - pass utilized the overhand throwing pattern included in baseball it belongs

   • e. Baseball Pass/Lance Pass: long pass with one hand as if throwing a baseball or a football; mainly to set up last-second plays.

   • f. Overhead pass: Effective in initiating a fast break

   • g. Blind pass: performed when a player looks/passes one direction while going to the other.

2. Dribbling

   • Moves with the ball on the court by pushing it toward the floor with fingers.

   • Bouncing the ball continuously.

   • The player must take steps while possessing the ball.

   • Pushing the ball repeatedly to the floor is a basic skill.

     • a. Cross-over dribble: In a crossover dribble, the ball handler changes the ball from one hand to the other via a dribble. The crossover is a fundamental dribbling technique in basketball used to keep the ball in the hand furthest from the defender (preventing a steal) while maintaining a desired speed and heading on the court.

     • b. Between the legs bounces the ball off of the floor between his legs and catches it with the other hand on the opposite side of his body.

     • c. Behind the back involves dribbling the ball behind the back either once (as a form of crossover) or continuously.

     • d. Rapid dribbling

       • This distinct type of dribbling can only be performed while the ball is low to the ground and with little bounce.

       • It involves slapping the ball rapidly, either with one hand or alternating between both hands, creating the necessary rhythm of slaps and bounces needed to keep the ball bouncing

3. Shooting

   • Scores and wins the game.

   • Shooting: skill to make a goal in basketball

     • a. Set Shot: bending the knees and hips with the player's dominant foot slightly in front. used for free throws.

     • b. Lay-up: a 2-point attempt with jumping and tipping the ball over the rim or banking it off the backboard.

     • c. Jump Shot or jumper usually straight up, and in mid-jump, propelling the ball into the basket.
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     • d. Hook shot one of the most effective inside moves, begins when the player puts his body between the ball and the opponent

     • e. Fade away shot a variation on a set jump shot in which the shooter attempts his shot leaning backward creating the effect of