Thinking, Metacognition, and Self-Regulated Learning

Thinking and Metacognition

7.1 Thinking and Metacognition

Objectives

• Describe the relationship between cognition, metacognition, and critical thinking, including their features.
• Describe the characteristics of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation, including their commonalities.
• Develop an outline for implementing metacognitive strategies on a task.

Overview

• Reflection: How do you know when a learning strategy is working? Do you recognize when a study approach is effective or not? How do you know?
• The Greek term "meta" denotes something that goes beyond, or follows after, something else.
• Metacognition is a type of cognition because it arises from cognition. Cognition includes reasoning, decision-making, memory processes, attention, and the like.
• Metacognition involves thinking about such cognitions or thinking about thinking.
• The distinction between a thought and a thought about a thought is complex and debated among researchers.
• Consensus: Cognitions are automatic and unconscious, while metacognitions are effortful and conscious (Veenman et al., 2006).
• Example: When you act without thinking and someone asks, "Why did you do that?" Any response requires effortful introspection.
• Automatic cognitions remain unconscious until you deliberately reflect upon your thought process or consciously engage your metacognitive thinking abilities.
• Under specific circumstances, metacognition also includes the cognitive skill of critical thinking.
• Metacognitive theorists like Flavell (1979) and Kuhn (2000) consider critical thinking to be a subtype of metacognition.
• Critical thinking involves self-reflection by questioning personal beliefs, weighing evidence, and setting aside preconceptions to evaluate new possibilities (Hennessey, 1999).
• Critical thinking also includes mental habits and attitudes such as curiosity, adaptability, open-mindedness, and fairness (Ennis, 1985; Halpern, 1998).
• Most definitions of critical thinking include key terms such as evaluation, analysis, reasoning, and decision-making (Facione, 1990).
• Critical thinking can be considered a subtype of metacognition, which, in turn, is a subtype of cognition.
• Gaining insight into how metacognition works helps students utilize it as a tool to promote self-regulated learning.

Important Aspects of Metacognition

• John Flavell (1976) is considered the pioneer of metacognitive research and defined the term:
  > Metacognition refers to one's knowledge concerning one's own cognitive processes and products or anything related to them… to the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of these processes in relation to the cognitive objects or data on which they bear, usually in the service of some concrete goal or objective (p. 232).
• Notable terms from the definition include knowledge and regulation, which are core elements in metacognitive theory.
• Flavell's model was grounded in the work of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, who addressed the value of deliberate, regulated, and goal-directed thinking in child development.
• Earlier explorations of information processing and memory (Corsini, 1971; Hart, 1965) and meta-memory research by Ann Brown (1978) also contributed to metacognitive understanding.

Declarative and Procedural Knowledge

• Flavell (1979) designated four classes of metacognitive phenomena, including metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experiences, goals or tasks, and actions or strategies.
• Kluwe (1982) emphasized the two general areas of interest in metacognitive research as used today: knowledge and regulation.
• According to Kluwe (1982), experiences, tasks, and strategies are subdivisions of metacognitive knowledge because each is a type of declarative knowledge.
• Declarative knowledge relates to factual understandings and beliefs about how people learn and the variables that impact performance.
  • It consists of both domain knowledge (stored information about facts and experiences) and cognitive knowledge (stored assumptions, hypotheses, and beliefs about thinking), each rooted in memory capacities.
  • Declarative knowledge uses informational content stored in memory to assess situations and make metacognitive decisions.
  • This content directly affects your understanding and beliefs about how cognitive processes work in terms of your metacognitive knowledge of persons, tasks, and strategies.
• Procedural knowledge gives rise to metacognitive regulation.
  • Procedural knowledge (Kluwe, 1982) includes how people "monitor the selection and application as well as the effects of solution processes and regulate the stream of solution activity" (p. 204).
  • It involves the executive monitoring of your progress in an activity as well as the executive regulation of your energy and resources in accomplishing tasks.
  • Whereas declarative knowledge is content-based, procedural knowledge is process-based, emphasizing your metacognitive regulation strategies in the areas of planning, monitoring, and evaluating.

Metacognitive Knowledge

• Flavell (1979) defined metacognitive knowledge in terms of one's understandings and beliefs about specific cognitive processes.
• His model highlights three distinct types:
  • Knowledge of person variables
  • Knowledge of task variables
  • Knowledge of strategy variables
• These clarify how you consider and approach how other people think and behave, what is required to complete a task, and which strategies to leverage in a given situation.

Knowledge of Person

• Person variables relate to the understanding of how you yourself and how others tend to learn and process information.
• Such knowledge influences both your own decision-making (e.g., knowing you study more effectively when listening to music) and how you relate to others (e.g., choosing to wear headphones when studying because music distracts your roommate).
• It also influences how you approach tasks and implement strategies when collaborating with other people.
• Working effectively in a study group requires distinguishing between your own learning preferences and the learning processes of other group members to optimize group outcomes.

Knowledge of Task

• Task variables relate to knowledge of what is generally required to complete a task and what challenges the task poses on your own processing capacities.
• It involves understanding specific features of the task and how capable you are of accomplishing it.
• Task knowledge affects your decision-making and motivation because your assessment of how easy or challenging an activity will be often determines your willingness to invest time in that activity.
• Example: Thinking about completing a difficult reading assignment can deter a tired student.
• The assessment of what is required to complete the task (e.g., focused attention) combined with an assessment of how capable you are of meeting that particular requirement (e.g., fatigue) is an example of metacognitive task knowledge in action.

Knowledge of Strategy

• Strategy variables relate to knowledge of the strategies that are available for use in certain situations.
• These include both cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies.
• Using cognitive strategies, you can implement specific techniques to accomplish goals, such as memorizing a vocabulary list by reciting the words repeatedly.
• When using metacognitive strategies, you can decide whether or not a particular cognitive approach is effective and then determine alternative approaches that might be more helpful.
• This process involves "stepping back" from the situation to evaluate both the task at hand and your own learning processes before choosing to use a different strategy, such as developing a mnemonic to memorize a long list of vocabulary words.
• Therefore, metacognitive strategies serve as a means of monitoring the use of cognitive strategies.

Table 7.1.1 Metacognitive Knowledge

Metacognitive Regulation

• Brown (1987) defined metacognitive regulation in terms of the deliberate, sequential processes used to control and oversee cognitive goals and activities.
• Fogarty (1994) extended upon this framework by delineating three distinct phases of metacognitive regulation in the learning process:
  • The planning phase
  • The monitoring phase
  • The evaluation phase
• These phases are really the foundation for understanding both metacognition and self-regulation in the learning process.

Planning Phase

• Devising a plan of action before starting a task is an important regulatory learning strategy.
• The process requires assessing what needs to be learned, considering various approaches, and choosing a course of action.
• Planning requires intentionality and thoughtfulness.
• Another important aspect of planning is the activation of prior knowledge.
• Considering what you already know about a topic can significantly enhance learning outcomes and make learning new materials easier.

Monitoring Phase

• After a plan has been devised and implemented, it is important to monitor how well that plan is working.
• This involves determining your level of understanding and comprehension of the materials based on the learning approach used.
• Taking a step back to ask simple questions such as "Am I really understanding the material?" or "Should I continue with this learning approach?" can improve learning outcomes.
• Monitoring ensures that you remain both intentional and active in the learning process, making decisions about the strategies you employ and the goals you want to achieve.
• The most important aspect of monitoring is that it requires you to stop and consider what you have learned so far.
• Example: When monitoring your plan, you might decide to:
  • Stop and do a brief “learning check" that tests your comprehension when reading a textbook chapter.
  • Stop and assess whether or not your writing approach is relevant and appropriate when working on a paper.

Evaluating Phase

• After a learning goal has been implemented, monitored, and finished, you should evaluate how well the material was learned and whether or not the plan was really effective.
• Self-testing can be a simple way to determine understanding and comprehension, such as asking yourself questions about the learning materials or completing review questions at the end of a textbook chapter.
• Evaluating the success of the learning strategies used takes more effort.
• If the material was not retained well, the question becomes whether an alternative approach might be more effective.
• Consider what could have been done differently and if there is a pattern in what was understood or misunderstood.
• Such questions are an important metacognitive aspect of the learning process.

Going Deeper: Metatheories of Metacognition

• Despite the focus on the differences between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation, there is also a considerable degree of overlap between them.
• Schraw (1998) found that numerous research studies reveal a positive correlation between the two, substantiating the claim that knowledge and regulation are mutually interdependent systems (Schraw & Moshman, 1995).
• Your knowledge of a task informs regulatory planning, monitoring, and evaluation, even as these processes further contribute to your knowledge base.
• In this back and forth between metacognitive knowledge and regulation, people naturally develop working theories of their own thinking called meta-theories of cognition.
• Researchers and theorists have pinpointed three kinds of meta-theories of cognition:
  • Tacit theories
  • Informal theories
  • Formal theories

Tacit Theories

• Developed without any explicit understanding or awareness that a theory has been formed.
• They operate in the background, influencing your beliefs and decisions at an unconscious level.
• While tacit theories are a primary mode of operation for young children, older children, and adults tend to rely on them as well.
• They underlie your preconceptions, biases, implicit attitudes, and automatic judgments.
• Tacit theories are the driving force behind thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that have not be analyzed or considered in an intentional way.

Informal Theories

• More explicit than tacit theories, but less explicit than formal theories.
• They develop from self-musings about your beliefs and assumptions that remain fragmented or incomplete because they have not been systematically explored.
• This level of metacognitive awareness is a prerequisite for either altering learning styles or establishing learning goals and serves as the baseline for becoming a self-regulated learner (Kuhn, 2000).

Formal Theories

• Complex and explicit and are a thoroughly investigated understanding of your cognitive processes.
• They provide a strong foundation for cultivating expertise in learning but require a great deal of thoughtfulness and energy to construct (Schraw & Moshman, 1995).

Student Self-Assessment

• Activity 7.1.1 is a template for developing metacognitive skills related to a current class assignment.
• It can be used to systematically guide you toward understanding how to improve the thoughtfulness and intentionality of your academic task approaches.

Activity 7.1.1 Describe an Exam That You Are Preparing for Now or Will Be in the Near Future

Activating Prior Knowledge

To assess your prior knowledge about this assignment, answer the following questions:

1. What do you already know about the topics included on this exam?
2. What do you find interesting or useful about better understanding these topics?
3. What previous learnings or experiences have you had related to these topics?
4. What gaps exist in your knowledge of these topics?
5. How might you fill those knowledge gaps? What resources can you access?

Metacognitive Knowledge

To assess how your personal beliefs might directly influence your learning process related to this assignment, answer the following questions:

Person Variables

1. What is your current motivation level for preparing for this exam?
2. What skills do you currently have that can aid you in successfully preparing for this exam?
3. If you imagine preparing for this exam, what barriers come to mind?

Task Variables

1. What is the easiest or least time consuming part of your exam preparation?
2. What is the hardest or most time consuming part of your exam preparation?
3. Based on these responses, how might you choose to approach preparing for this exam in terms of effective time management (see Chapter 4 for some specific suggestions)?

Strategy Variables

1. What are some basic strategies you can use for your exam preparation (see Chapters 4 and 5 for strategy suggestions)?
2. If those strategies are not effective, what alternative strategies might you use?
3. How will you know if a strategy is effective or not?

Metacognitive Regulation

To determine how your approach to preparing for this exam might be better organized and subsequently enhanced, answer the following questions:

Planning Phase: Describe some efficient steps you can take to complete your exam preparation.

[For example: I will create a test plan that outlines my specific study times and strategies during the two weeks prior to the exam.]

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Monitoring Phase: List some ways to monitor your progress on the assignment.

[For example: After each sub-unit, I will answer in writing the unit objectives given by the professor.]

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Evaluating Phase: List ways to evaluate how well your planning and monitoring worked.

[For example: Immediately after the exam, I will write down everything I can remember, then identify the sources (e.g., textbook and lecture) of the questions, and then evaluate my performance on each of these sources.]

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Importance of Intention

• Although considering some of these tasks and questions may seem peculiar, especially if you have not done this before, using metacognition and being intentional will result in increased efficiency and higher achievement over time.
• Like most other learning tasks, with practice, thinking about thinking will become a more normal part of your self-regulation process.

Chapter 7.1 Summary

• Cognitions are automatic and unconscious, metacognitions are effortful and conscious, while critical thinking is an objective analysis used to form judgments.
• Declarative knowledge is content-based, while procedural knowledge is process-based.
• Metacognitive knowledge includes three variables: knowledge of person, knowledge of tasks, and knowledge of strategy.
• Metacognitive regulation includes three phases: planning, monitoring, and evaluating.
• There are three types of metacognitive meta-theories: tacit theories, informal theories, and formal theories.

Key Terms

• Cognition - Mental process of gaining knowledge and understanding by means of thoughts, perceptions, and sensations.
• Critical Thinking - Mental process of purposefully monitoring, analyzing, and reformulating thoughts, beliefs, and judgments.
• Declarative Knowledge - Fixed information related to facts or verifiable data stored in memory.
• Metacognition - Mental process of gaining knowledge and understanding about cognitions by means of thinking about thinking.
• Metacognitive Knowledge - Personal beliefs and understandings about cognitive processes.
• Metacognitive Regulation - Personal methods by which cognitive processing is directed, controlled, and changed.
• Procedural Knowledge - Situational information related to performing specific activities.

7.2 Self-Regulated Learning

Objectives

• Describe characteristics of self-regulated learning.
• Explain the similarities and differences among two major models of self-regulated learning.
• Using the systematic approach to learning, develop an outline for approaching a task.

Overview

• Reflection: In what areas of your college studies might you benefit from increased self-control? In what areas might you spend more time monitoring your progress and learning approaches? Are these two areas the same or different? What might this tell you about the value of increasing your self-regulation as a learner?
• Self-regulated learning is an umbrella term.
• It refers to the unique way in which cognition, metacognition, critical thinking, and motivation come together to create an optimized learning process.
• It includes how you control and monitor the aforementioned processes by setting goals, creating detailed plans, developing strategies, and monitoring your progress.
• Research indicates that highly self-regulated learners in college earn better grades, have higher self-esteem, and are generally more well-adjusted than their peers with lower self-regulatory capacities (Pintrich, 2004; Tangney et al., 2004; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).
• The metacognitive skill of self-monitoring plays a substantial role herein, with research indicating that metacognitive abilities are a strong predictor of overall academic performance (Cassidy, 2011; Dunning et al., 2003; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).
• Schraw et al., (2006) define self-regulated learning as “our ability to understand and control our learning environments" (p. 111).
• Zimmerman (2002) claims that "self-regulation is not a mental ability or an academic performance skill; rather it is the self-directive process by which learners transform their mental abilities into academic skills" (p. 65).

Elements of Self-Regulated Learning

• Self-regulated learners consistently monitor their goals and skills to improve their grasp of academic materials.
• Self-regulated learners exert control over their attention by using strategies and plans to optimize their academic outcomes.
• Self-regulated learners are intentional learners, diligently assessing themselves, their environment, and their learning materials in order to make conscientious choices about their learning process.
• These are skills that can become automatic with consistent and repetitive use over time (Pintrich & de Groot, 1990).
• The greatest challenge involves taking the first tentative steps.
• By testing these ideas in your own life experience, you can quickly determine what works and what does not.
• It is really a matter of effort and thoughtfulness rather than innate ability (Pintrich, 2004).
• Everyone is capable of becoming a highly effective, self-regulated learner with practice and due diligence.

Two Models of Academic Self-Regulation

• Metacognition and self-regulation are intimately connected.
• Both models utilize metacognition as their foundation, yet each incorporates unique elements into its explanation.
• The first model emphasizes the three phases of metacognitive regulation.
• The second, although similar, is more directive and focuses on building routines when approaching familiar learning and academic tasks.
• Each contributes a unique perspective on how metacognition informs both goal pursuit and self-regulated learning.

Zimmerman and Moylan (2009) Model

• Outlines the phases of self-regulated learning based on the work of Brown (1978).
• Goes beyond the framework of planning, monitoring, and evaluating phases to create a more conceptually detailed approach.
• Their model of a cyclical-phase self-regulatory feedback loop provides a comprehensive understanding of how self-regulated learning occurs and what is required to enact it.
• Its combination of phases sheds light on how thoughts and feelings contribute to effective self-regulated learning.

Weinstein (1988, 1994) Model

• A similar approach to Zimmerman and Moylan's (2009) cyclical model where metacognitive regulation provides the framework.
• More systematic and more directive in developing, monitoring, and evaluating academic goals and tasks.
• Includes eight steps that allow students to build routines and automaticity around typical academic tasks that will allow them to be effective and efficient and achieve their goals with higher levels of certainty.
• This intentional process gives students a framework when needing to approach novel tasks.

The Cyclical Model of Self-Regulated Learning

• Zimmerman and Moylan (2009) developed a three-phase model of self-regulated learning that is widely viewed as an important contribution to the literature.
• Each of the three main phases contains two additional sub-phases.
• The purpose of the model is to provide a clear outline of how deep learning occurs so that students and teachers can enhance the learning process and improve learning outcomes.

Forethought Phase

• One of the most crucial steps in completing a task occurs before you even begin.
• Planning and assessing what is required to complete a task requires forethought.
• Taking the time to formulate goals and strategies, reflect on past experiences, and consider the level of motivation you bring to a task are important features of self-regulated learning (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).
• Using a systematic learning approach may take more time initially, but the outcomes and results tend to reflect that additional effort (Zimmerman, 1995).
• During this phase, learners engage in two distinct forms of preparation:
  • Task analysis
  • Self-motivation beliefs

Task Analysis

• Development of goals and strategies, often based upon past experiences, that will lead to task completion (Cassidy, 2011).
• The goals and strategies you choose usually depend on how your performance is going to be assessed (e.g., taking an exam) and the level of performance you want to attain (e.g., satisfied with a B on the exam).
• Equipped with knowledge of both the method of assessment and the desired level of performance, learners can choose appropriate goals and strategies that fit their needs.
• Example: Studying for a 20-question multiple-choice exam and desiring only a passing grade may lead one student to prepare only by scanning the textbook for keywords and definitions on the day before the exam.
• Studying for a complex essay exam who wants the highest grade possible will formulate learning goals and study strategies that ensure greater depth of comprehension.

Self-Motivation Beliefs

• Directly influence the amount of effort and energy you are willing to expend on a task (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009).
• There are numerous factors at play in regard to your motivation, all of which stem from your personal beliefs.
• Students have beliefs about why they are learning the material (goal orientation), the merits and importance of completing the task (personal interest), how capable they are of completing the task (self-efficacy), and finally, what the perceived likelihood is of success (outcome expectation).
• All of these personal beliefs can change the level of motivation individuals experience as learners.
• A high level of confidence and interest in a task leads naturally to increased effort (Zimmerman, 1994).
• When a task is interpreted as irrelevant or not worth the time or simply too difficult, your willingness to expend energy and effort drops off.
• Each of these beliefs can alter what goals and strategies you use in your task analysis.

Performance Phase

• Having formulated goals and strategies, the next obvious step in the learning process is to actually perform the task.
• Ensuring that these goals and strategies are effective requires some diligence and intentionality.
• The performance phase is not simply about doing a task.
• It also involves considering the effectiveness of the goals, strategies, and actions, as well as making changes if necessary (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).
• During this phase, learners engage in two distinct forms of performance review:
  • Self-observation
  • Self-control

Self-Observation

• Involves closely considering what is or is not working, or what aspects of your learning approach that are either beneficial or not (Cassidy, 2011).
• This requires self-monitoring as a metacognitive learning tool.
• Self-monitoring is a process of observing your progress on a task and comparing it to a pre-established standard.
• Such a standard is typically set in the forethought phase where certain goals and strategies are first considered.
• It can include monitoring the learning product (e.g., self-testing to determine whether a list of terms have been thoroughly memorized) or the learning process (e.g., assessing whether or not it might be more beneficial to create an acronym or mnemonic device to memorize the list of terms).

Self-Control

• A matter of concentration and effort, which also ties in closely with motivation.
• If a lack of motivation is observed in the forethought phase, self-control is probably going to be limited in the performance phase (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009).
• This can be altered through reminders about the purpose of the task and the goals established (interest incentives), as well as by creating a personal reward system for following through on the task (self-consequences).
• There are also metacognitive aspects of self-control that revolve around planning and preparation.
• Using balanced time management strategies, seeking assistance from others when needed, and choosing good environments for studying and learning can improve self-control by eliminating distractions and frustrations.
• Using mental imagery to organize information, describing the necessary steps in the learning process, or simply implementing the basic task strategies formulated in the forethought phase can drastically improve self-control (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).

Self-Reflection Phase

• Once the task has been completed, the post-task analysis begins.
• While at least some aspects of the forethought and performance phases are typically implemented by students, taking time afterward to reflect upon the learning process is often ignored.
• The self-reflection phase is a crucial part of building a strong set of successful learning approaches.
• When you take the time to consider whether certain goals, strategies, and actions were ultimately effective, your arsenal of learning tools is refined and your ability to attain even better outcomes in the future increases (Zimmerman, 1994).
• During this phase, learners engage in two distinct forms of outcome review:
  • Self-judgment
  • Self-reaction

Self-Judgment

• A reflective process of assessing performance on a task.
• This requires a self-evaluation of how well the task was performed in relation to the method of assessment (e.g., taking an exam) and the performance goals established in the forethought phase (Cassidy, 2011).
• Even if two students are experiencing the same form of assessment and receive the exact same grade, their self-evaluations can still vary based on how they expected to perform.
• Causal attributions, or the explanations people create to justify certain outcomes, also play a significant role in self-judgments (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009).
• The accuracy (or lack thereof) of causal attributions for performance can change your relationship to the learning process by altering your motivation and heightening your emotions.
• Example: A student who blames the teacher for a low exam score is less likely to evaluate how their own poor study habits influenced the outcome.
• Another student might accurately assess that a bad score resulted from inefficient studying and therefore decide to make a positive and lasting change.

Self-Reactions

• The cognitive, affective, and motivational responses you have to self-judgments, or the way you react to and cope with successes and failures (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009).
• These influence your future behaviors.
• People tend to experience self-satisfaction when judging their performance in an affirming manner, which leads to increased motivation and positive affect.
• Low self-satisfaction has the opposite effect of deterring interest and motivation in the activity.
• Confronted with feelings of low or high self-satisfaction, the decisions you make can be either adaptive or defensive.
• Adaptive decisions are related to persistence and flexibility.
  • It is adaptive to reconsider how a learning task was handled in order to try out new strategies and set new goals.
• Defensive decisions are related to avoidance and rigidity.
  • Instead of seeing the poor learning outcome as an opportunity, it is interpreted as a failure, and the task is avoided in the future.
• When a learner is not satisfied with their performance, the most adaptive decision is to try out new and potentially beneficial approaches to the task.

Figure 7.2.1: Cyclical Model of Self-Regulation

Systematic Approach to Learning

• Weinstein (1988, 1994) developed a model of strategic learning that includes four components:
  • Skill
  • Will
  • Self-regulation
  • The academic environment
• Central to the self-regulation component is the systematic approach to learning, which includes eight defined steps beginning with setting a goal and finishing with summatively evaluating your plan, efforts, and outcomes.
• The purpose of the approach is to build routines and automaticity around familiar academic tasks and to also give students a framework or methodology when approaching new or novel tasks.

Two Processes Central to This Approach

Developing Awareness

• Similar to metacognitive knowledge where knowledge of person (your motivation, interest, etc.), task (difficulty, context, etc.) and strategy (elaboration strategies, etc.) are necessary and incorporated into many of the steps.

Exercising Control

• Being purposeful and following through on each of the steps of the approach.
• At first, working through the steps may feel more time-consuming and challenging (like many of the strategies introduced); however, it is repeated follow-through that will allow automaticity to occur over time.
• This automaticity can lead to efficiencies while still achieving at a high level.

Steps to the Systematic Approach

Step 1: Setting a Goal

• Setting a useful goal (specific and measurable, realistic and challenging, with a timeframe) provides direction for the remaining steps.
• It allows you to determine how successful your efforts and plan were in accomplishing the goal and completing the task.

Step 2: Reflecting

• This is where metacognitive knowledge is valuable.
• What are your strengths and weaknesses around this task?
• How have you performed on similar tasks in the past?
• What strategies have you used in the past?
• Which strategies were helpful?
• How does this class or task fit into your major and educational plan?
• How does this task fit into your overall course grade?
• By reflecting and activating prior knowledge, you can fully understand some of the challenges and specifics in achieving your goal.

Step 3: Brainstorming

• In this step, you want to brainstorm as many strategies as possible to complete and achieve your goal.
• Using your responses to the above reflection is a starting point, especially identifying the strategies that have worked or not worked in the past.
• Chapters 3, 4, and 5 will likely contain other strategies related to time management, information processing, and comprehension monitoring that you have not attempted.
• You should also include resources that are available for you to use. Using available resources is a critical help-seeking strategy.
• Since this is a brainstorming step, do not eliminate strategies even if they are improbable.
• Starting with a comprehensive list of potential strategies allows you more flexibility in changing your approach if you discover some strategies are not helpful or effective.

Step 4: Selecting Strategies

• In this step, your plan becomes clear.
• Which strategies will you use?
• When, where, and how will you use them?
• In addition to the learning and comprehension monitoring strategies, include how strategies and