Interpersonal Processes in Social Psychology

Interpersonal Attraction

• Factors contributing to interpersonal attraction:
  • Proximity: We tend to be attracted to those physically close to us, as this increases interaction accessibility versus environmental spoiling.
  • Rewarding interactions: We are drawn to individuals who provide us with benefits (e.g., wit, charm, tangible goods) which is discussed in social exchange theories.
  • Shared attitudes and values: Attraction is also influenced when individuals share similar attitudes, values, and interests.
  • Matching hypothesis: We are likely to be attracted to individuals who are at a comparable level of physical attractiveness.

Love

• Definition: An enduring interpersonal bond characterized by emotional and social intimacy.
• Types of Love:
  • Passionate Love: Involves intense emotional and physiological arousal.
  • Companionate Love: Represents deep affection, friendship, and emotional intimacy.
• Triangular Theory of Love: Consists of three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment.
• Love stories: Personal narratives that define one’s views on love.

Evolutionary Views of Love and Sexual Strategies

• For Males:
  • Short-term strategy: Seek younger, fertile females.
  • Long-term strategy: Search for committed relationships with sexual access.
• For Females:
  • Use short-term liaisons to choose suitable males.
  • Generally prefer older males with resources, aligning with resource acquisition theories.

Altruism

• Definition: Altruism pertains to intentional behaviors that benefit others, which may not provide obvious gains and often come with costs to the giver.

Theories of Altruism

• Ethical Hedonism: Suggests altruistic acts are ultimately selfish because they benefit the actor, such as via emotional satisfaction or by reducing negative feelings.
• Genuine altruism: Associated with natural compassion for others.
• Reciprocal altruism: Suggests that natural selection favors altruistic behaviors if they benefit both parties involved more than they cost.

Model of Bystander Intervention

• Bystander Intervention: The process of helping a stranger in distress is influenced by multiple steps.
• Steps:
  1. Noticing the Event: Do individuals see what's happening?
  2. Interpreting the Situation as an Emergency: Do observers recognize it requires action?
  3. Taking Responsibility: Does the individual feel it’s their duty to act?
• Resulting Actions: If they answer 'No' to any step, there is no intervention; if 'Yes', they proceed to help.

Diffusion of Responsibility

• Describes a decreased sense of personal accountability to act, especially noticeable in crowds, where people feel anonymous, leading to increased justification of inaction.

Aggression

• Definition: Aggression refers to verbal or physical behavior aimed at harming someone else.
• Types of Aggression:
  • Hostile Aggression: Triggered by anger; often impulsive.
  • Instrumental Aggression: Calculated, pragmatic, often used to achieve specific goals such as punishment.

Violence, Culture, and Gender

• Aggression rates vary across cultures, with a consistent prevalence in gender differences, where approximately 90% of aggressive acts are committed by cis-gender males.
• Distinction is made between direct and indirect aggression.

Theories of Aggression

• Cognitive Neoassociation Theory: Exposure to negative stimuli can elevate aggressive thoughts and behaviors, incorporating the frustration-aggression hypothesis.
• Cognitive-Social Perspective: Focuses on how rewards, punishments, cognitive processes, and social learning contribute to aggression.
• General Aggression Model: Combines personal and situational variables to explain aggression.

Social Influence

• The presence of others affects individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (e.g., social facilitation).
• Deindividuation: In crowds, individuals may lose their sense of self and moral judgment.
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Initial false beliefs about a situation can elicit behaviors that prove those beliefs true.

Obedience

• Definition: Compliance to the directives of an authority figure.
• Ethical Concerns: Examines why individuals obey orders that may harm others (historical precedence, e.g., Nazi regime).

Milgram's Obedience Study

• Experimental Procedure: Participants were asked to deliver shocks to a learner for incorrect answers, with an escalating voltage range (15-450 volts).
• Findings: Approximately 66% of subjects administered the maximum shock.

Factors Influencing Obedience

• Proximity to the learner: Less likely to administer high shocks if the learner is nearby.
• Proximity to the experimenter: Greater disobedience observed when the experimenter is not present.
• Peer influence: Presence of dissenting peers can lead to lower rates of obedience.

Conformity

• Definition: A change in behavior or attitude to align with peer standards, contrasting with compliance, which may involve direct requests.
• Subtle pressures often increase conformity rates (e.g., by fashion norms).
• Asch’s Conformity Study: Participants conformed to incorrect answers given by group members about line lengths.

Factors Affecting Conformity

• Group Size: Larger groups typically cause higher conformity rates.
• Dissenting Opinions: The presence of even one dissenting opinion can empower individuals to trust their own judgment.
• Personality & Culture: Lower self-esteem individuals are more prone to conform; collectivist cultures demonstrate higher conformity rates.

Group Processes

• A group shapes individual actions through shared norms, roles, and expectations.
• Important Elements:
  • Norms: Behaviors that are expected within a group.
  • Roles: Definitions of how individuals should behave within various contexts.

Zimbardo's Prison Experiment

• Participants adopted roles of either guards or prisoners, leading to severe behavioral shifts regardless of prior personality traits.

Group Decision Making

• Characterized by:
  • Group Polarization: Movement towards extreme viewpoints.
  • Group Cohesiveness: Clustering of members for stronger alignment.
  • Groupthink: Decision-making geared toward harmony at the expense of realistic appraisal.

Leadership

• Leaders exert unique influence over group processes and can adopt varying styles:
  • Autocratic: Takes charge and makes decisions.
  • Democratic: Engages group input while still participating in the decision-making process.
  • Laissez-Faire: Minimal intervention, allowing the group to operate independently.

Leadership Dimensions

• Leadership can differ based on task orientation (focused on efficiency) versus relationship orientation (focused on team feelings).