Interpersonal Processes in Social Psychology

Factors contributing to interpersonal attraction:
- Proximity: We tend to be attracted to those physically close to us, as this increases interaction accessibility versus environmental spoiling.
- Rewarding interactions: We are drawn to individuals who provide us with benefits (e.g., wit, charm, tangible goods) which is discussed in social exchange theories.
- Shared attitudes and values: Attraction is also influenced when individuals share similar attitudes, values, and interests.
- Matching hypothesis: We are likely to be attracted to individuals who are at a comparable level of physical attractiveness.

Definition: An enduring interpersonal bond characterized by emotional and social intimacy.
Types of Love:
- Passionate Love: Involves intense emotional and physiological arousal.
- Companionate Love: Represents deep affection, friendship, and emotional intimacy.
Triangular Theory of Love: Consists of three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment.
Love stories: Personal narratives that define one’s views on love.

For Males:
- Short-term strategy: Seek younger, fertile females.
- Long-term strategy: Search for committed relationships with sexual access.
For Females:
- Use short-term liaisons to choose suitable males.
- Generally prefer older males with resources, aligning with resource acquisition theories.

Definition: Altruism pertains to intentional behaviors that benefit others, which may not provide obvious gains and often come with costs to the giver.

Ethical Hedonism: Suggests altruistic acts are ultimately selfish because they benefit the actor, such as via emotional satisfaction or by reducing negative feelings.
Genuine altruism: Associated with natural compassion for others.
Reciprocal altruism: Suggests that natural selection favors altruistic behaviors if they benefit both parties involved more than they cost.

Bystander Intervention: The process of helping a stranger in distress is influenced by multiple steps.
Steps:
1. Noticing the Event: Do individuals see what's happening?
2. Interpreting the Situation as an Emergency: Do observers recognize it requires action?
3. Taking Responsibility: Does the individual feel it’s their duty to act?
Resulting Actions: If they answer 'No' to any step, there is no intervention; if 'Yes', they proceed to help.

Describes a decreased sense of personal accountability to act, especially noticeable in crowds, where people feel anonymous, leading to increased justification of inaction.

Definition: Aggression refers to verbal or physical behavior aimed at harming someone else.
Types of Aggression:
- Hostile Aggression: Triggered by anger; often impulsive.
- Instrumental Aggression: Calculated, pragmatic, often used to achieve specific goals such as punishment.

Aggression rates vary across cultures, with a consistent prevalence in gender differences, where approximately 90% of aggressive acts are committed by cis-gender males.
Distinction is made between direct and indirect aggression.

Cognitive Neoassociation Theory: Exposure to negative stimuli can elevate aggressive thoughts and behaviors, incorporating the frustration-aggression hypothesis.
Cognitive-Social Perspective: Focuses on how rewards, punishments, cognitive processes, and social learning contribute to aggression.
General Aggression Model: Combines personal and situational variables to explain aggression.

The presence of others affects individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (e.g., social facilitation).
Deindividuation: In crowds, individuals may lose their sense of self and moral judgment.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Initial false beliefs about a situation can elicit behaviors that prove those beliefs true.

Definition: Compliance to the directives of an authority figure.
Ethical Concerns: Examines why individuals obey orders that may harm others (historical precedence, e.g., Nazi regime).

Experimental Procedure: Participants were asked to deliver shocks to a learner for incorrect answers, with an escalating voltage range (15-450 volts).
Findings: Approximately 66% of subjects administered the maximum shock.

Proximity to the learner: Less likely to administer high shocks if the learner is nearby.
Proximity to the experimenter: Greater disobedience observed when the experimenter is not present.
Peer influence: Presence of dissenting peers can lead to lower rates of obedience.

Definition: A change in behavior or attitude to align with peer standards, contrasting with compliance, which may involve direct requests.
Subtle pressures often increase conformity rates (e.g., by fashion norms).
Asch’s Conformity Study: Participants conformed to incorrect answers given by group members about line lengths.

Group Size: Larger groups typically cause higher conformity rates.
Dissenting Opinions: The presence of even one dissenting opinion can empower individuals to trust their own judgment.
Personality & Culture: Lower self-esteem individuals are more prone to conform; collectivist cultures demonstrate higher conformity rates.

A group shapes individual actions through shared norms, roles, and expectations.
Important Elements:
- Norms: Behaviors that are expected within a group.
- Roles: Definitions of how individuals should behave within various contexts.

Participants adopted roles of either guards or prisoners, leading to severe behavioral shifts regardless of prior personality traits.

Characterized by:
- Group Polarization: Movement towards extreme viewpoints.
- Group Cohesiveness: Clustering of members for stronger alignment.
- Groupthink: Decision-making geared toward harmony at the expense of realistic appraisal.

Leaders exert unique influence over group processes and can adopt varying styles:
- Autocratic: Takes charge and makes decisions.
- Democratic: Engages group input while still participating in the decision-making process.
- Laissez-Faire: Minimal intervention, allowing the group to operate independently.

Leadership can differ based on task orientation (focused on efficiency) versus relationship orientation (focused on team feelings).