Chapter 9: Parenting and Prenatal and Early Childhood Development
9. Parenting and Prenatal and Early Childhood Development – Comprehensive Study Notes
Key knowledge and skills (summary of Page 2)
Key knowledge
Considerations associated with becoming a parent (changes in responsibilities and relationships, additional stressors)
Availability of social and emotional support and resources for parents
Role of parents, carers and the family environment in determining optimal development of children, by developing understanding of:
fertilisation and the stages of prenatal development
risk and protective factors related to prenatal development (e.g., maternal diet, effects of smoking and alcohol during pregnancy)
physical, social, emotional and intellectual development in infancy and early childhood
impact of early life experiences on future health and development
Intergenerational nature of health and wellbeing
Key skills
Analyse factors to be considered and resources required for the transition to parenthood
Analyse factors that influence development during prenatal and early childhood stages of the lifespan
Explain health and wellbeing as an intergenerational concept
9.2 Considerations when becoming a parent
Goals / Learning Intentions (Page 4)
Understand the various considerations when becoming a parent
Success Criteria (Page 4)
Identify the difference between a right and a responsibility
Determine the needs of a child
Understand social and emotional support available for new parents
Understand resources the varying levels of government offer for new parents
The Right vs Responsibility concepts
Engage prompts (Pages 5–7)
Prompt: “Most people who are sexually mature can have a baby, but not everyone can be a parent.”
In pairs, define: a Right, a Responsibility
Right (definition, Page 7)
A moral or legal entitlement to have or do something
Responsibility (definition, Page 7)
Being answerable or accountable for something within one’s control
Abbreviations exercise: RIG, RES, HTS, PON, SIB, ILIT, IES — used to recall the terms RIGHT(S) and RESPONSIBILITY(S)
RIG + HTS = RIGHT(S)
RES + PON + SIB + ILIT + IES = RESPONSIBILIT(IES)
9.3 Fertilisation and the stages of prenatal development
Goals / Learning Intention (Page 28)
Understand the process of fertilisation
Success Criteria (Page 28)
Explain the process of fertilisation
Key concepts and terminology
New Learning Task: define and distinguish several terms (Pages 29–31)
Fertility: ability to conceive; probability of conception per cycle
Regenerate: ability to repair or regrow tissue/cells
Chromosomes: structures containing DNA; carry genes
Genes: units of heredity that determine characteristics
Gamete: sex cell (sperm for males or ova/egg for females)
Gametes and fertilisation
Sperm (male) and ovum/ova (female) contain haploid set of chromosomes
Zygote: formed when a sperm fertilises an ovum; contains a complete set of 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent)
Zygote = fertilised egg; later divides and develops into embryo
The zygote carries the genetic information that determines development timing, sex (via X/Y chromosomes), and characteristics
A schematic summary:
23 ext{ from sperm} + 23 ext{ from ovum} = 46 ext{ chromosomes}
Sperm and ova formation and timing (Pages 32–33)
Sperm production begins at puberty; sperm form in testes at a rapid rate (over 12 ext{ billion} per month)
Ova form in the ovaries before birth (prenatally); females have all ova at birth, they mature at puberty
Fertilisation process (Pages 34–39)
Occurs when a sperm penetrates an ovum; the genetic materials fuse to form a zygote
The zygote contains 23 chromosomes from the sperm and 23 from the ovum
Sperm and ovum genetic materials combine to determine sex and developmental traits
Multiple sperm entry must be prevented; changes to the ovum surface block additional sperm after the first penetrates
Germinal, Embryonic, and Foetal stages (Pages 41–46, 48–56)
Germinal stage (0–2 weeks)
Fertilisation occurs; rapid cell division begins (~30 hours after fertilisation)
By day 3, zygote becomes 16 cells
Zygote travels down the Fallopian tube to the uterus; within about a week, blastocyst implants into the endometrium
Placenta begins forming
Embryonic stage (3–8 weeks)
Implantation is complete; embryo forms
Rapid cell division and organ development; neural tube (brain and spinal cord) begins forming
By ~3 mm, embryo secretes hormones to maintain the endometrium and prevent menstrual period
Limb buds appear; heart begins beating
Placenta becomes more functional; early oxygen/nutrient exchange via placenta, but full function develops over weeks
By the end of this stage, major organs start to take shape; risk from teratogens is high during this stage
Foetal stage (9–40 weeks)
All major organs formed, but not all fully functional yet; growth and maturation occur
Key milestones by weeks (approximate from notes):
Week 11: about 7 ext{ cm} long; eyelids fused; teeth development begins; organs begin to function
Week 14: about 14 ext{ cm} long; facial features form; palate; tongue develops taste buds; external ears functional
Week 22: about 33 ext{ cm} long; foetus swallows amniotic fluid; eyelids separate; sex detectable by ultrasound
Week 28: about 37 ext{ cm} long; nails form; body proportions begin to resemble later stages
Weeks 34–38: rapid lung development with surfactant production increasing; size approaches full term
Full term ~ 40 ext{ weeks} or about 9 ext{ months}; typical length around 50 cm by birth
Important gestational facts (Pages 57–58)
Zygote division stage chart: Germinal (0–2 weeks), Embryonic (3–8 weeks), Foetal (9–40 weeks)
Teratogens: agents that can cause prenatal defects, especially during the embryonic stage (e.g., alcohol, tobacco, certain medications, rubella)
Fertilisation flowchart (Pages 39–40)
Sperm deposited in vagina → swim toward fallopian tubes
If ovum present, sperm compete to penetrate ovum’s membrane by releasing enzymes
Penetration occurs; outer barrier changes prevent other sperm entry; fertilisation occurs to form zygote
Flow example (3-step):
Sperm deposited in vagina and reach fallopian tubes
Sperm penetrate ovum after enzyme release; zygote forms
Other sperm are blocked from entering to preserve chromosomal number
Twinning (Page 44)
Identical twins: develop from the same zygote (same egg and sperm); same sex; share placenta or separate placenta depending on timing of split
Fraternal twins: develop from two separate eggs fertilised by two different sperm; can be same or different sex; separate placentas
Environmental sensitivity during embryonic stage
Because major organs and systems form during this stage, environmental influences (teratogens) have the greatest potential to cause defects
9.4 The role of parents in achieving optimal prenatal development
Goals / Learning Intention (Page 73)
Understand factors that influence development during the prenatal stage
Success Criteria (Page 73)
Identify and explain risk and protective factors contributing to prenatal development
Risk and protective factors (Page 76–77)
Risk factors: conditions that increase the likelihood of adverse prenatal development (e.g., tobacco use, alcohol consumption, certain illnesses, poor nutrition, high stress)
Protective factors: conditions that support health and development (e.g., social and emotional support, stable relationships, access to healthcare, health literacy)
Resources to support new parents (Pages 18–23)
Federal government resources
Medicare: universal health insurance for free/subsidised treatment in public system
Dad and Partner Pay: up to 2 weeks government-funded pay for new dads/partners in first year after birth/adoption
The Pregnancy, Birth and Baby helpline: information and advice on maternal nutrition, breastfeeding, baby development, sleep, etc.
Raising Children Network: government parenting information site
State government resources (Victoria example)
Maternal and Child Health Service: free primary health service for families with children birth to school age; 52 weeks/year; 10 key visits from birth to 3.5 years
My Health, Learning Development record: milestone tracking and health records for newborns
Maternal and Child Health Line: 24/7 telephone support for families with children birth to school age
Local government resources
Access to recreation facilities; immunisation programs; long day care; playgroups; local maternal and child health services; community support
Meeting a child’s needs in prenatal context (Page 12–13)
Needs categorized into Physical, Social, Emotional, Intellectual
Physical needs examples: nutritious food, safe housing, access to healthcare, safe environment, adequate sleep
Social needs: social interaction, relationships with others; opportunities to interact with peers
Emotional needs: warmth, love, secure attachment; parenting practices with warmth and praise
Intellectual needs: learning, communication, skill development; opportunities for exploration and problem solving
New learning resources for parents (Pages 16–18)
Health knowledge/health literacy improves health behaviours (nutrition, avoiding smoking/alcohol, seeking healthcare)
Material resources: money for baby items, clothing, transport, childcare, medical costs, maternity clothes
Strengthening the parent–child environment
Social support helps cope with stress and resilience
Emotional support helps with adjustments after birth and reduces postpartum stress
Knowledge/education supports better health behaviours for both mother and baby
9.5 Development in infancy
Goals / Learning Intention (Page 81)
Understand physical, social, emotional and intellectual development in infancy
Identify developmental milestones and summarize four areas of development
Infancy characteristics (Page 83)
Newborns are relatively helpless: cannot feed, regulate warmth, stay clean/hydrated without help
Attachment: need a caregiver who can respond to signals
Sensory exposure: visuals, touch, hearing, smell, taste; opportunities to play and explore
Language stimulation and motor/language/thinking skill development are essential
Infancy lasts until the second birthday
Areas of development (to be studied in textbook pages 419–424)
Physical: growth, motor skills, sensory development
Social: interaction with caregivers, peers, social play
Emotional: bonding, emotional security, temperament, self-regulation
Intellectual: learning, communication, problem solving
Milestones and practice (Pages 84–85)
Tasks include summarising pages 419–420 and 420–424; exam-style prompts
Simple game like peekaboo demonstrates infant development characteristics (e.g., object permanence, social interaction, anticipation)
9.6 Development in early childhood
Goals / Learning Intention (Page 87)
Understand physical, social, emotional and intellectual development in early childhood
Summarise four areas of development for 2–6-year-olds
Early childhood description (Page 88)
Preschool years; focus on developing fine motor skills, creativity, language skills, and pre-reading/pre-writing readiness
Promote cooperation, sharing, making choices, self-control, persistence, self-worth
Milestones and importance (Pages 89–90)
Read pages 426–428 for four areas of development; prepare for exam questions such as how kindergarten promotes social development
9.7 Early life experiences and the intergenerational nature of health and wellbeing
Goals / Learning Intention (Page 92)
Understand intergenerational health and wellbeing; explain epigenetics; evaluate birth weight impacts
Intergenerational concepts (Page 94)
Health and wellbeing have intergenerational impacts: prenatal stress, maternal smoking, early life experiences influencing adult health and disease risk
Example implications: stress hormones in pregnancy linked to nicotine addiction later; maternal smoking associated with obesity and cardiovascular risks later in life
Early life experiences can influence health and wellbeing in adulthood (epigenetics, risk factors such as low birth weight and early stress)
Epigenetics (Page 95)
Epigenetics refers to changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors rather than changes in DNA sequence
Practice and assessment prompts (Pages 95–96)
Define epigenetics; discuss impacts of birth weight; answer case studies and table questions in the booklet
Key question review (Page 97)
Examples: investigating how overweight in childhood impacts later health and wellbeing
Additional notes and cross-cutting themes
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
Rights listed include: right to live a full life; right to healthcare, clean water, nutritious food, clean environment; right to a standard of living adequate for physical and mental needs; right to relax, play, leisure; right to reliable information from media; parents/carers responsible for ensuring these rights are fulfilled (Page 9)
Rights of a child table activity (Page 11) to be completed in booklet
Relationship between rights and responsibilities
Rights imply corresponding responsibilities of caregivers/parents to meet child needs and protect wellbeing
Knowledge vs material resources (Page 29)
Distinction and importance of both knowledge-based resources (health literacy, information) and material resources (money, equipment, childcare, medical costs)
Question prompts: what is the most important type of resource for new parents? (engage activity)
Practical tools and resources to support prenatal and early child development
Federal: Medicare, Dad and Partner Pay, helpline, RaisingChildren.net.au
State: Maternal and Child Health Service, My Health and Development Record, Maternal and Child Health Line
Local: immunisation programs, playgroups, long day care, community health services
Ethical and practical implications
Balancing responsibilities with personal life changes; managing stress and maintaining social support networks
Ensuring access to healthcare and information to promote optimal prenatal and early childhood development
Recognising and mitigating risks from teratogens during pregnancy (e.g., smoking, alcohol, certain medications, infectious diseases)
Key numerical references to remember (examples)
Prenatal development timelines: germinal 0-2 weeks, embryonic 3-8 weeks, foetal 9-40 weeks
Typical pregnancy duration: ext{approximately } 40 ext{ weeks} or 9 ext{ months}
Chromosome count in zygote: 23 ext{ from sperm} + 23 ext{ from ovum} = 46
Major growth periods include infant and early childhood milestones (walking, talking, social bonding)
TL;DR: Key ideas to remember for exams
Understanding: Right vs responsibility; how these guide parenting decisions
Prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, foetal stages; critical timelines; zygote formation; placenta development
Fertilisation: sperm-ovum fusion; genetic combination; chromosomal count; prevention of polyspermy
Teratogens: environmental factors harming embryonic/foetal development; major examples include tobacco, alcohol, certain meds, rubella
Placenta and labour: placenta functions; third stage of labour; organ exchange and waste removal
Protective and risk factors: social/emotional support, health literacy, access to healthcare, nutrition; avoid exposures that harm foetal development
Intergenerational health: epigenetics; lifelong health influenced by prenatal and early-life experiences; importance of a healthy mother for intergenerational health
Resources: federal/state/local supports that help new parents meet child needs and optimize development