American Revolutionary War: Phases, Campaigns, Diplomacy, and Aftermath (Lecture Notes)
Continental Army and the war effort structure
The Declaration of Independence is proclaimed on July ext{ }4, ext{ }1776, but initially it was a curiosity; to become more than a footnote, Americans must win their war against Great Britain. The British have a professional army and a first-class navy with traditions going back generations; Americans rely on colonial militias and a nascent national force.
The Continental Congress creates the Continental Army and appoints a veteran commander, George Washington, with ultimate oversight by Congress to coordinate resources from all 13 states.
The Continental Army is not a single, centralized formation; it consists of attachments and units spread across the country. Washington commands the main force, but local commanders are often independent and geographically distant from him (e.g., Boston vs. Charleston).
Militia troops are not eliminated. They remain active in states, maintain order, suppress Loyalist activities, and sometimes fight alongside regular continental units. Loyalist or Tory militias may back British efforts.
The relationship between regulars and militias becomes a political issue later, feeding into debates over central national authority vs. local state power (federalism) that persist after the war.
Washington’s leadership combines personal moral authority with a willingness to take risks; he inspires soldiers who are close to desertion to stay, often delivering orders in person and emphasizing duty and perseverance.
There are notable episodes of mutiny or near-mutiny due to pay shortages and harsh conditions, which Washington and Congress must manage to keep the army intact.
Three broad phases of the war (overview)
The Northern Phase (1775–1778): most fighting occurs in the Northern states (Boston, New York, Philadelphia). Strategic focus on New England and keeping the rebellion from breaking the continental backbone.
The Southern Phase (1778–1781): fighting shifts to Virginia and the Carolinas; British efforts aim to rally Loyalists and punish Patriot strength in the South.
The Negotiating Phase (1781–1783): despite ongoing fights, diplomacy takes the foreground as war winds down and peace terms are negotiated.
The Northern Phase (1775–1778): key events and dynamics
After Lexington and Concord, the British push toward Boston and the siege begins; Americans gather militias and Washington arrives to command Continental forces.
Siege of Boston becomes a long stalemate as neither side can force a decisive break; this continues into early 1776.
A critical American advantage comes when cannons from Ticonderoga are captured, removed to Boston, and placed around the city; this pressure leads the British to evacuate Boston in March 1776.
Almost immediately, a massive British force—about 30{,}000 soldiers, including many Hessian mercenaries—for a grand campaign arrives in New York City, as the Declaration is being signed in Philadelphia.
New York City and the Hudson–East Coast theater become the main focus; Washington cannot prevent a naval- and land-based push by a powerful British force. The Americans suffer heavy casualties and organizational strain; Washington’s army retreats toward New Jersey, never recapturing New York City, which remains in British hands for the rest of the war.
New York City experiences a mysterious fire that destroys much of the port; its cause remains uncertain, but the British lose use of a key base for a time.
By December 1776, Continental forces have withdrawn across the Delaware into Pennsylvania, with Washington’s army reduced to roughly 3{,}000 soldiers at that moment.
Washington’s leadership under pressure keeps the army together; he calms mutinous strains and emphasizes perseverance as a core value of the revolutionary cause.
The winter at Valley Forge (roughly 1777-1778) tests the army’s endurance; with severe shortages, disease, and exposure, many soldiers might have deserted, but Washington’s leadership and the arrival of European volunteers (notably Baron von Steuben) improve discipline and drill.
Trenton (the night of Christmas, 1776) and Princeton (early January 1777) are bold, low-risk operations that surprisingly succeed and lift American morale; Washington crosses the Delaware and defeats Hessian forces at Trenton, then wins at Princeton, shifting the initiative back to the Americans.
Brandywine and Germantown near Philadelphia (1777) demonstrate British offensive momentum; Philadelphia falls to the British and Congress evacuates to the interior; Washington’s army endures a harsh winter at Valley Forge in 1777–78 and regroups.
Monmouth Court House (June 1778) ends in a tactical draw, but the Continental Army proves improved discipline and cohesion. The British abandon Philadelphia and retreat to New York.
The Northern Phase ends with the switch of British strategy toward the South after Howe is replaced by Henry Clinton; the phase sets the stage for a long Southern campaign.
Diplomacy and foreign intervention (linking the Northern Phase to global context)
The victory at Saratoga (October 1777) proves decisive in persuading France to recognize American independence and to ally with the United States, marking a turning point in the war.
Before Saratoga, France is cautious about supporting colonial rebellion due to fear of British power; after Saratoga, King Louis XVI and ministers recognize the United States as independent and sign a military alliance in 1778, committing troops and naval support.
France also begins to conduct expeditions against British holdings in the Caribbean and the Indian Ocean; Spain enters the war in 1779; the Dutch join in 1780 (though not in a formal alliance with the US, they oppose Britain).
Benjamin Franklin and the Marquis de Lafayette (the latter as a French noble ally) become central figures in sustaining Franco-American cooperation; Franklin engages in Parisian diplomacy, while Lafayette becomes Washington’s trusted ally.
The American cause is aided by sympathetic French officers (e.g., von Steuben’s cross-Atlantic service and training) and by general French naval and troop operations that stretch British resources.
The Southern Phase (1778–1781): campaigns, guerrilla warfare, and turning points
The British shift to the South begins with Savannah (December 1778), which marks the collapse of Georgia as a major theater of war.
In early 1780, Cornwallis strengthens Southern campaigns; Charleston falls in May 1780 with the capture of thousands of American defenders, representing the largest surrender of US soldiers up to that time.
Cornwallis pushes inland in the Carolinas and defeats American forces at Camden in August 1780; large areas of the Carolinas fall under British control.
Guerrilla warfare emerges in the Carolinas: patriots like Andrew Pickens, Thomas Sumter, and Francis Marion (the Swamp Fox) conduct hit-and-run raids, complicating British operations and undermining loyalist support; this period highlights brutal and brutalized local violence, including ambushes and reprisals.
The rebellion in the South also reveals the social and political complexities of the war: civil conflict among neighbors, and the uneasy line between patriotism and vengeance.
Kings Mountain (October 1780) marks a turning point where frontier militia defeat a British force in the Carolinas, providing a significant rallying point for American resistance.
Nathaniel Greene (a Rhode Islander with some skepticism about his own role) takes command of the Southern army and conducts a strategy of exhausting movement and decisive battles, rebuilding American strength in the region.
Greene’s campaigns in 1781—fighting at Cowpens (1781) and Guilford Courthouse (1781)—inflict heavy losses on Cornwallis’ army but do not immediately destroy it; they bring Cornwallis under pressure in the Carolinas and force a strategic rethink.
Cornwallis retreats to Virginia, then occupies Yorktown (a fortified river port near Williamsburg and Jamestown). Washington, moving from New York with a French army and fleet, coordinates with the Franco-American force to trap Cornwallis at Yorktown.
The Yorktown siege (late 1781) culminates when Cornwallis’s forces, about 7000 troops, surrender to the combined American and French armies on October ext{ }19, ext{ }1781.
The famous moment during the surrender involves the British band playing "The World Turned Upside Down" to mark the reversal of fortunes.
Endgame and diplomacy: after Yorktown
Although some British detachments remain in places like New York, Savannah, and Charleston, the major fighting ends; British government leaders resign and negotiate peace terms.
In 1782–1783, peace talks in France lead to the Treaty of Paris (signed in 1783), negotiated by figures including Franklin; the treaty formalizes American independence and sets borders and terms.
Key terms of the Treaty of Paris (1783): Britain recognizes the independence of the United States; US territory is acknowledged east of the Mississippi River (the map commonly referenced in class shows the new borders extending to the Mississippi, with Florida returned to Spain). The treaty also recognizes US control of fisheries off the Atlantic coast; property compensation for Loyalists is addressed; American recognition of British control of Canada is acknowledged; and negotiations on other economic arrangements are included.
The United States agrees to respect British control of Canada, and the border settlement leaves some issues to future negotiations, but the treaty sets the stage for formal peace and cross-Atlantic relations.
Evacuation Day marks the withdrawal of British troops from New York City in late 1783, closing the military phase of the war.
The Franco-American alliance persists as a factor in postwar diplomacy; the relationship between Britain and the United States evolves into what historians call the “special relationship,” guiding interactions in later centuries and shaping diplomatic norms (state visits, reciprocal invitations, etc.).
Aftermath: who wins, who loses, and why the war ended as it did
Why the war turned out as it did (point-counterpoint discussion): the deck was stacked against a British victory due to geography and logistics (the British had to fight 3,000 miles from home; Atlantic transport could take up to two months each way), and there was no single, easily controllable theater of command across the entire continent.
Loyalists were not concentrated enough nationally to overturn the Patriot majority; many had to choose between neutrality or joining Patriots, with some Loyalists choosing exile to Canada or back to Britain.
British propaganda and some misconduct (looting, harsh treatment in some cases) damaged Loyalist support and undermined control over occupied territories; American propaganda and discipline sometimes contrasted with Loyalist brutality.
The primary strategic objective for Britain—to hold a large, permanent chunk of the American territory—proved unattainable; keeping lines of supply and communication, and destroying Washington’s army in the field, did not occur despite several opportunities.
Winners and losers after the war:
Winners: the United States gains independence and clear claims to western lands; religious minorities (Presbyterians and Catholics) gain greater religious freedom in the new republic; certain enslaved people gain opportunities for freedom or better prospects, though emancipation is inconsistent and not universal.
Mixed or contested outcomes: enslaved people—some escape with British promises or join the Continental Army; large numbers remain enslaved, and the Declaration’s rhetoric about liberty contrasts with the reality of slavery in the new nation.
Losers: Loyalists (who face confiscation of property, social ostracism, and in many cases forced emigration); many Native American tribes lose protection and land west of the Appalachians after the war, as the Proclamation Line of 1763 effectively ends as a barrier to westward expansion; Britain’s loss of the American colonies produces a sense of national humiliation but does not profoundly harm Britain’s broader economic trajectory.
The postwar landscape: western expansion accelerates; the Proclamation Line of 1763 is ignored; Native American tribes face increased pressure and displacement; the new republic begins to define itself around republican government and the rule of law, with Washington resigning his commission and returning to Mount Vernon to emphasize civilian control and the avoidance of a military dictatorship.
The revolution is not merely a political transformation; it is also a social one. Some historians argue the revolution is two struggles—home rule and who governs the home front. It is not solely a class-based upheaval; elites lead the conquest of independence, but social tensions and violence persist. The war catalyzes civil conflict in some regions (e.g., South Carolina) and prompts debates about who owns power in the new republic.
Washington’s role as a republican model is pivotal: he stresses civilian leadership, refuses to crown himself monarch, and ultimately resigns his power after the war. The touching moment with his glasses during a speech to officers highlights his commitment to republican norms and the avoidance of autocratic rule.
The war’s legacy includes a long-term political and diplomatic relationship with Britain, the evolution of federalism in the United States, and the transformation of American national identity that continues to shape political discourse for generations.
Major people, places, and symbols you should remember
George Washington: Continental Army commander, inspirational leader, and constitutional statesman who resigns his commission to reinforce republican government.
Benedict Arnold: once a hero of Saratoga who defects to the British side, becoming a byword for treachery.
Marquis de Lafayette: French aristocrat who fights with Washington, helps secure French support, and embodies Franco-American cooperation.
Baron von Steuben: Prussian officer who trains American troops at Valley Forge, professionalizing drill and battlefield formation.
Nathanael Green: American general who reorganizes the Southern Army and conducts a series of costly but effective campaigns in the Carolinas and Virginia.
Francis Marion, Thomas Sumter, Andrew Pickens: American guerrilla leaders in the South, known collectively as the Swamp Fox, the Gamecock, and the Carolina patriots; Kings Mountain (October 1780) becomes a turning point in the Southern theater.
Yorktown (October 1781): decisive Franco-American victory; Cornwallis surrenders on October ext{ }19, ext{ }1781; the ceremony symbolizes the end of major hostilities.
Trenton (December 1776) and Princeton (early January 1777): Washington’s bold, high-impact winter operations that boost morale.
Saratoga (October 1777): turning point that persuades France to ally with the United States; marks a major strategic shift in the war.
Newport (1778) and Monmouth (June 1778): important late-Phase Northern operations; Monmouth ends in a tactical draw but demonstrates improved American discipline.
Kings Mountain (October 1780): frontier victory that helps shift momentum in the South.
Valley Forge (1777–78): symbol of hardship and endurance; a turning point in training and discipline.
Treaty of Paris (1783): formal peace and set of terms on independence, borders, loyalist property, and fishing rights; evacuation of British troops completes the transition toward a peaceful, recognized United States.
Connections to broader themes and real-world relevance
Federalism and the American constitutional project emerge from the war’s experience: disputes over centralized power vs. state power foreshadow the Constitution debates.
The war’s global dimension shows the 18th-century idea of interlinked great powers and colonial conflicts expanding into a world system; foreign involvement is essential to American victory.
The treatment of religious minorities, free Black men, and enslaved people reveals the paradoxes of liberty and equality in a nation founded on universal rights while tolerating or allowing slavery; abolition and emancipation efforts begin to push forward in various states after the war.
The “special relationship” with Britain, defined by mutual interests and shared history, becomes a cornerstone of 19th–20th century diplomacy, shaping how the United States interacts with European powers and how domestic political culture evolves.
The social fallout of the war includes ongoing internal tensions and the emergence of an interstate system governed by republican norms, rather than hereditary rule or imperial governance.
Quick reference: key dates and numbers (LaTeX notation)
Declaration of Independence: 1776
Cannons from Ticonderoga moved to Boston: before 1776 (leading to British evacuation)
Washington crosses the Delaware and Trenton: December ext{ }1776 (Trenton) and January ext{ }1777 (Princeton)
Northern phase ends around 1778; Monmouth: June ext{ }1778
Saratoga victory: October ext{ }1777
French alliance established: 1778
Savannah captured: December ext{ }1778
Charleston captured: May ext{ }1780
Kings Mountain: October ext{ }1780
Guilford Courthouse: March/April ext{ }1781
Yorktown siege ends: October ext{ }1781; Cornwallis surrenders: October ext{ }19, ext{ }1771? (correct date: 1781)
Treaty of Paris (peace): 1783
Evacuation of New York by British: 1783$$
Ethical and practical implications highlighted in the lecture
Liberty versus slavery: revolutionary rhetoric promotes liberty and equality, but slavery persists in the new nation; abolition advances unevenly across states (Massachusetts, Pennsylvania) and in limited forms for certain groups, while others gain more religious freedom.
Civil violence and reconciliation: the war is not a peaceful transition; it involves civil conflict, vigilante violence, and property confiscations, especially among Loyalists.
Leadership and legitimacy: Washington’s example of civilian control and voluntary relinquishment of power underlines the importance of republican norms and the peaceful transfer of authority in maintaining order after victory.
Global diplomacy and realism: the United States leverages diplomacy with France and other powers to gain essential military and material support, accepting costly risks and balancing alliances with long-term strategic goals.
Summary takeaways
A nation’s birth is shaped not only by a few decisive battles but by organizational structures (Continental Army vs. militias), strategic geography, foreign alliances, and political leadership.
The war evolves from a local conflict into a global struggle that ultimately yields independence and defines a new political order while exposing enduring social tensions that require long-term solutions.
Washington’s leadership, combined with allied French military and naval power, and key battlefield successes (Trenton, Saratoga, Kings Mountain, Cowpens, Guilford Courthouse, Yorktown), culminate in a negotiated peace that reshapes North American geography and sets the stage for the United States’ emergence as an independent republic.