The Basics
- By using the deductive method, we can apply rules of inference that correspond to valid patterns of inference, we derive the conclusion of the argument and therefore establish its validity.
- This is to avoid doing long truth tables.
![[Screenshot 2023-08-16 at 10.59.02 AM.png]]
- On the right, there's the justification for the formula's presence in the derivation.
- The last line is the conclusion.
- This style of derivation is called a Fitch diagram.
- The argument that it shows needs to be valid and translated into sentential logic formula.
Introduction rules
- Introduction rules: allow us to introduce new conjunctions, disjunctions and conditionals.
Conjunction introduction
![[Screenshot 2023-08-16 at 11.06.01 AM.png]]
- conventions used:
- We use the letters p for premises, a for assumptions and c for the conclusion.
- the order in which we cite the lines matches the order in which the conjuncts appear in the inference line.
- the expressions appearing in the rule definition contain no specific formulae, but contain metavariables ranging over all formulae.
- Examples:
- ![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 7.53.15 AM.png]]
- ![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 7.53.58 AM.png]]
Disjunction introduction
![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 7.55.21 AM.png]]
- Two different forms of the rule
- ∨IR, with which we add the new disjunct on the right.
- ∨IL, with which we add the new disjunct on the left.
- Example
- ![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 7.59.38 AM.png]]
- We introduced our first two rules of inference by relating them to the truth-conditions of the connectives they introduce.
Conditional introduction
![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 8.04.52 AM.png]]
- Rather than focus on the truth-conditions here, it helps to think about the falsity conditions, instead.
- A conditional happens to be false just in case its antecedent is true and its consequent false.
- If we want to introduce a conditional, then, all we need to do is rule out this situation; then we can safely infer the truth of the conditional.
- We do something new: we assume the antecedent, then within the scope of that assumption, we derive the consequent.
- Considering the example:
- ![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 8.02.07 AM.png]]
- We assumed a new justification.
- The box is the scope of the assumption. This helps us not use the assumption in other places where it doesn't have an effect.
- Subderivation: a derivation inside of the derivation, when we make an assumption we make a miniature derivation.
- We can also apply a rule that discharges the assumption, so we avoid making mistakes.
- We can use a rule called reiteration to copy a premise to be able to include it inside the scope:
- ![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 8.07.29 AM.png]]
Other considerations of introduction
- Introduction rules can be applied forward to premises and/or other available (i.e., already justified) lines in the derivation, and they can be applied backward to the conclusion or any other goal with the appropriate main connective.
- Keep in mind:
- Apply introduction rules backward.
- Only apply an introduction rule backward if it will produce subgoal(s) that are possible to derive
Elimination rules
- Elimination rules: allow us to extract certain subformulae from conjunction, disjunctions and conditionals.
Conditional elimination
- The rule →E, traditionally known as Modus Ponens, captures this pattern of inference as follows:
- If we know that a conditional (φ→ψ) is true, and we also know that the antecedent φ is true, then we can safely infer from these two tidbits that the consequent ψ must also be true.
- ![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 8.11.36 AM.png]]
- Example:
- ![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 8.13.20 AM.png]]
Conjunction elimination
![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 8.13.41 AM.png]]
- Example:
- ![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 8.14.14 AM.png]]
Disjunction elimination
![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 8.19.53 AM.png]]
- If we know that some disjunction is true, then we know that at least one of the disjuncts is true, but we can't be certain which on.
- Argument by cases:
- Example:
- ![[Screenshot 2023-08-22 at 8.31.55 AM.png]]
Summary
- The basic structure of derivations is introduced.
- The introduction rules for the binary connectives are introduced.
- Conjunction introduction produces a conjunction from its two conjuncts.
- Disjunction introduction produces a disjunction from one of its disjuncts.
- Conditional introduction produces a conditional from its consequent, possibly within the scope of the assumption of the antecedent.
- Introduction rules are usually most effective when applied backward to a particular goal.
- The elimination rules for the binary connectives are introduced.
- Conditional elimination extracts the consequent from a conditional and its antecedent.
- Conjunction elimination extracts either conjunct from a conjunction.
- Disjunction elimination produces a formula that follows from each disjunct individually.
- Elimination rules are usually most effective when applied forward to obtain (or get closer to obtaining) a particular goal.
- Finally, we give some advice on how to approach more complicated derivations.
New terms
rules of inference | justification | derive | Fitch diagram | division |
---|
introduction rules | elimination rules | assumption | scope | dependency |
subderivation | Modus Ponens | argument by cases | positive subformula | extractability |
extraction | conversion | inversion | | |
- conjunction introduction
- disjunction introduction
- conditional introduction
- conjunction elimination
- disjunction elimination
- conditional elimination
- positive subformulae