Archaeology

Study Guide: Chapter One - Frameworks for Europe’s Past

I. Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology in Europe

• This chapter introduces the prehistoric archaeology of Europe, focusing on human evolution, social development, and cultural changes from the Stone Age through the Iron Age.

• Key themes include the emergence of art, agriculture, societal hierarchies, and the transition to literate societies in classical Greece and Rome.

• European prehistory serves as a model for societal evolution, offering insights into early human groups, technological advancements, and complex social structures.

II. Geographic and Environmental Context

• Europe is divided into two distinct regions:

  • North of the Alps: Characterized by colder climates and different technologies and lifestyles.

  • South of the Alps: Warmer, influenced by the Mediterranean, and closer to Southwest Asia, facilitating early agricultural and societal developments.

• The Alps acted as a significant barrier to trade and migration until the Bronze Age.

III. Geology and Raw Materials

• Geological Framework: Europe has diverse geological features including the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, and North European Plain.

• Key Resources:

  • Copper: Predominantly found in Eastern Europe (Balkans, Carpathians).

  • Tin: Scarce, essential for creating bronze.

  • Precious Metals (Gold & Silver): Concentrated in Eastern Europe.

  • Iron: Widely available, playing a crucial role in the Iron Age.

IV. Time and Chronology

• Geological Time: Includes the Cenozoic era (last 65 million years), with human evolution occurring during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs.

• Archaeological Time: Categorized by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen into the Three-Age System:

  1. Stone Age: Divided into:

     • Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) – Hunter-gatherers.

     • Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) – Transitional period.

     • Neolithic (New Stone Age) – Early farmers, pottery, and settled villages.

  2. Bronze Age: Defined by metallurgy, long-distance trade, and social stratification.

  3. Iron Age: Marked by the development of fortifications, advanced weaponry, and complex political structures.

V. History of Archaeology in Europe

• Early Development: Archaeology emerged as a formal discipline in the 19th century, evolving from antiquarianism.

  • Christian Jürgensen Thomsen developed the Three-Age System.

  • Jacques Boucher de Perthes established the antiquity of humanity through excavations in France.

• Post-World War II: Archaeology expanded in scope and methodology:

  • Rise of large-scale excavation projects.

  • Increasing specialization (e.g., bioarchaeology, archaeogenetics).

  • Rescue archaeology to preserve sites threatened by development.

VI. Significant Dig Sites and Monoliths

• Stonehenge (England): Studied extensively by William Stukeley in the 18th century, this iconic monolith site exemplifies early astronomical and ritualistic practices.

• Atapuerca (Spain): A major archaeological site with evidence of some of the earliest human ancestors in Europe, dating back to 1.3 million years ago. Key sections include:

  • Sima del Elefante: Contains the oldest human remains in Europe.

  • Gran Dolina: Provided evidence of Homo antecessor and early tool use.

  • Sima de los Huesos: Known for the largest collection of Homo heidelbergensis fossils.

• Polderweg (Netherlands): An example of large-scale rescue archaeology conducted to preserve prehistoric artifacts during modern development.

• Swiss Lake Dwellings: Discovered in the 1850s during low water levels, these Neolithic settlements provide insight into early agricultural societies.

• Knossos (Crete): Excavated by Arthur Evans, it revealed the center of the Minoan civilization and its advanced architectural and societal structures.

VII. Divergent Archaeological Approaches in Europe

• National Differences:

  • Italy: Emphasizes classical archaeology (Rome).

  • Greece: Focus on Archaic and Classical periods.

  • Britain: More theoretical approach due to a less abundant archaeological record.

  • Germany: Known for precise excavation and detailed reporting.

  • Scandinavia: Focuses on local issues, less cross-European reach.

• East vs. West Divide:

  • Soviet and Eastern European archaeology was shaped by Marxist perspectives until the 1990s.

  • Western European archaeology embraced technological advancements and diverse theoretical frameworks.

• Modern Trends: Increasing emphasis on interdisciplinary collaboration and ethical considerations.

VIII. Significance of European Prehistory

• Key Questions in European Archaeology:

  • When did humans arrive in Europe?

  • What led to the transition from hunter-gatherers to agricultural societies?

  • How did social inequality and complex political structures develop?

• Relevance:

  • European prehistory provides insights into human adaptation and cultural innovation.

  • Understanding the past helps address modern challenges such as environmental sustainability and social organization.

IX. Key Takeaways

• Framework of Study: Archaeologists use geological and archaeological time scales to contextualize findings.

• Cultural Evolution: Europe’s prehistory demonstrates a trajectory from small groups of foragers to complex hierarchical states.

• Ongoing Research: Technological advancements and interdisciplinary approaches continue to reshape our understanding of prehistoric Europe.