ENG02 CO3

Section 1: Critical Reading as Reasoning

1.1 Formulating Assertions

• Definition: Assertions are declarative sentences that claim something is true about something else. They are strong, confident statements that may or may not be supported by evidence.

• Types of Assertions:

  1. Fact: Statements that can be proven true or false.

     • Example: World War II ended in 1945.

  2. Convention: Statements based on customs, norms, or traditions.

     • Example: Shaking hands is a common greeting in many cultures.

  3. Opinion: Statements that reflect personal beliefs or judgments.

     • Example: Social media is ruining real-life communication.

  4. Preferences: Statements that express personal likes or dislikes.

     • Example: I enjoy listening to jazz music more than rock.

1.2 Formulating Counterclaims

• Definition: Counterclaims are claims made to rebut a previous claim. They provide a contrasting perspective to the main argument.

• Steps to Formulate Counterclaims:

  1. Identify the major points of disagreement.

  2. Analyze the author’s strongest argument.

  3. Identify weaknesses or shortcomings in the author’s argument.

  4. Look for hidden assumptions.

  5. Use specific lines from the text to support your counterclaim.

1.3 Assessing Evidence

• Definition: Evidence refers to facts, data, or examples used to support a claim.

• Steps to Analyze and Evaluate Evidence:

  1. Analyze:

     • Identify the point the author is trying to prove.

     • Identify the evidence (facts, data, examples) that supports the point.

     • Determine the most important pieces of evidence.

  2. Evaluate:

     • Ask if the evidence is sufficient, relevant, and representative.

1.4 Logical Fallacies

• Definition: Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that weaken an argument.

• Common Types of Logical Fallacies:

  1. Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of the argument.

     • Example: The candidate is an ex-felon, so he is not to be trusted.

  2. Circular Reasoning: Using the conclusion as a premise.

     • Example: Global warming doesn’t exist because the Earth is not getting warmer.

  3. False Cause: Assuming a cause-and-effect relationship without evidence.

     • Example: Putting more police on the streets causes crime to increase.

  4. Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc: Assuming that because one event followed another, the first caused the second.

     • Example: Marijuana use leads to heroin addiction because most heroin addicts used marijuana first.

  5. Either/Or Fallacy: Presenting only two alternatives when more exist.

     • Example: Love the Philippines or leave it.

  6. Evasion: Ignoring or avoiding the question.

     • Example: Ross avoids answering whether he would still be Christian if raised in Iran.

  7. False Analogy: Comparing two things that are not alike.

     • Example: Education is like cake; too much is bad for you.

  8. Oversimplification: Making a complex issue seem simple.

     • Example: If you vote for that party, you are racist.

  9. Rationalization: Giving incorrect reasons to justify a position.

     • Example: I can’t go to the opera because I have a deadline and need to wash my hair.

  10. Red Herring: Introducing an unrelated topic to distract from the main issue.

      • Example: You asked about unemployment, but let’s talk about something else.

  11. Slippery Slope: Suggesting that a small step will lead to a catastrophic result.

      • Example: If I give you a raise, the company will go bankrupt.

  12. Two Wrongs Make a Right: Justifying a wrong action by pointing to another wrong.

      • Example: You shouldn’t single me out for cheating because others do it too.

  13. Hasty Generalization: Drawing a conclusion from insufficient evidence.

      • Example: It’s warmer this year, so global warming is accelerating.

  14. Straw Man: Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack.

      • Example: You want to reform the criminal justice system? So, you want to free all criminals?

  15. Equivocation: Using a word with multiple meanings to mislead.

      • Example: Brad is a nobody, but since nobody is perfect, Brad must be perfect.

  16. Non Sequitur: A conclusion that does not logically follow from the premises.

      • Example: If you’re willing to drive a car, you should be willing to support nuclear disarmament.

Section 2: Context of Text Development

2.1 Hypertext

• Definition: Hypertext is a method of presenting information that allows related topics to be connected through clickable links.

• Purpose: Hypertext enables readers to access information tailored to their needs, such as definitions or explanations of unfamiliar terms.

• Example: Clicking on a term in an online article to access its definition.

2.2 Intertextuality

• Definition: Intertextuality refers to the relationship between texts, where one text draws inspiration from another.

• Methods of Intertextuality:

  1. Retelling: Repeating a story with some modifications.

  2. Quotation: Directly quoting from another text.

  3. Allusion: Making indirect references to another text.

  4. Pastiche: Imitating the style of another text.

Section 3: Critical Reading as Looking for Ways of Thinking

3.1 Types of Claims

• Definition: A claim is a statement that asserts something to be true.

• Types of Claims:

  1. Claims of Fact: Statements that can be proven true or false.

     • Example: The Earth’s climate is changing fast.

  2. Claims of Value: Statements that express judgments or evaluations.

     • Example: Red is a happy color.

  3. Claims of Policy: Statements that suggest a course of action.

     • Example: Animals should be treated as human equals.

3.2 Explicit and Implicit Claims

• Explicit Claims: Clearly stated in the text.

• Implicit Claims: Not directly stated but implied through the text.

Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Identify the Type of Assertion

1. The Eiffel Tower is located in Paris, France.

2. I enjoy listening to jazz music more than rock.

3. Shaking hands is a common greeting in many cultures.

4. Social media is ruining real-life communication.

Exercise 2: Formulate a Counterclaim

• Claim: Social media is ruining real-life communication.

• Counterclaim: Social media enhances communication by connecting people across the globe.

Exercise 3: Identify Logical Fallacies

1. If we allow students to redo tests, they will never study, and the education system will collapse.

2. You can’t trust her argument because she’s a known liar.

3. We should not ban plastic bags because people will just use paper bags, which are worse for the environment.

Exercise 4: Identify the Type of Claim

1. The Filipino language needs to be developed.

2. Sweden is a peaceful country.

3. Animals should be treated as human equals.