WW1 & Its Aftermath

World War I, known as "The Great War," led to the fall of empires, formation of new nations, and future tensions. 

The war resulted in significant loss of life and devastation, particularly among young men due to modern weaponry. 

The United States joined the conflict in 1917, emerging as a global military power but also facing domestic repression against progressivism. 

The war fueled both national pride and disillusionment, undermining hopes from the Progressive Era. 

It set the stage for a global depression, the outbreak of World War II, and ongoing national, religious, and cultural conflicts globally. 

Prelude to War: 

The late 19th-century rise of the German Empire disrupted European peace. 

Kaiser Wilhelm II, who became monarch in 1888, sought to build a rival navy and establish colonies, threatening British interests. 

In response to German expansion, Russia and France formed a defensive alliance in 1892 against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Italy. 

Britain eventually joined the Triple Entente with France and Russia due to rising tensions and threats from Germany. 

The Ottoman Empire posed another threat to European stability, with Austro-Hungarian ambitions in Turkish territories worrying Russia, which aimed to support Slavic nations. 

By 1914, the Austro-Hungarian Empire controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina and viewed Slavic Serbia as a challenge. 

On June 28, 1914, Serbian Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, leading to nationalist sentiments against Serbia. 

The United States had a minimal role in global diplomacy and did not engage in European political affairs. 

The U.S. government focused on expanding the transatlantic economy, benefiting American businesses and consumers. 

American foreign policy was influenced by President George Washington's advice to avoid foreign alliances and large military establishments. 

The U.S. maintained a policy of neutrality, concentrating on its industrial economy and having limited diplomatic tools for international engagement. 

The U.S. military was small and outdated, relying on persuasion rather than force. 

In the 1880s, Congress authorized the construction of a modern navy, but the army remained small and underfunded. 

After the turn of the century, the military faced challenges with new technologies and could not sustain large-scale conflicts. 

The Davis Act of 1908 and the National Defense Act of 1916 led to the development of the National Guard and military reserves, creating a strategic reserve of trained soldiers and sailors. 

Border issues in Mexico tested modern American military forces. 

Revolution in Mexico threatened U.S. business interests. 

Francisco Madero challenged Porfirio Diaz’s regime, leading to his imprisonment and subsequent flight to San Antonio. 

Madero created the Plan of San Luis Potosí, which initiated the Mexican Revolution. 

In April 1914, President Woodrow Wilson sent Marines to Veracruz to oversee the city government and prevent German arms shipments to Victoriano Huerta. 

Marines remained until November 1914, highlighting reliance on naval forces and military modernization challenges. 

The naval presence contributed to the Naval Act of 1916, aiming to build a superior Navy. 

The Wilson administration withdrew support from Diaz while observing the chaos of the revolution. 

In 1916, Pancho Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 17 Americans due to U.S. support for his rivals. 

President Wilson commissioned General John "Black Jack" Pershing to capture Villa, utilizing motorized vehicles, aircraft, and wireless telegraphs. 

Motorized vehicles aided in logistics, while aircraft provided valuable lessons despite mechanical issues. 

Wilson mobilized over 100,000 National Guardsmen as a show of force in northern Mexico. 

The potential for war with Mexico was overshadowed by the European crisis. 

Wilson declared American neutrality in 1914, emphasizing impartiality amid strong economic ties to Britain and France. 

U.S. commercial credit loans to combatants compromised claims of neutrality. 

Trade with Allied nations increased U.S. involvement in the conflict. 

British naval blockades and German submarine attacks heightened tensions, culminating in the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in May 1915, which killed over a hundred Americans and fueled public support for war. 

American diplomatic tradition avoided formal alliances. 

The U.S. Army was perceived as inadequate for sustained overseas fighting. 

By 1914, the U.S. was the leading nation in the global industrial economy, producing over one-third of the world's manufactured goods. 

The U.S. manufacturing output was approximately equal to that of France, Great Britain, and Germany combined. 

After the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and Grand Duchess Sophie, Austria sought support from Germany and issued ten ultimatums to Serbia. 

Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, after Serbia failed to meet the demands. 

Russia mobilized its armed forces to protect Serbia. 

Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914, to support Austria after Russian mobilization. 

The first military action occurred against neutral Belgium as Germany activated the Schlieffen Plan to quickly invade France. 

Germany's violation of Belgian neutrality prompted Great Britain to declare war on Germany on August 4, 1914. 

In 1915, the European war resulted in bloody trench stalemates that continued into 1916. 

British and French offensives led to high casualties without significant gains. 

Peripheral campaigns against the Ottoman Empire in Turkey, the Middle East, and Africa were largely unsuccessful. 

In March 1917, the regime of Tsar Nicholas II collapsed in Russia, improving German military prospects. 

Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare to cut off Allied supplies from the U.S. 

Germans hoped to end the war before American troops could significantly impact the conflict. 

German diplomat Arthur Zimmermann proposed support to Mexico to regain lost territories (Texas, New Mexico, Arizona) to complicate U.S. intervention. 

Mexico declined the offer, but the Zimmermann Telegram revelation contributed to U.S. entry into the war. 

By fall 1916 and spring 1917, President Wilson feared an imminent German victory would upset Europe's power balance. 

Public opinion was stirred by submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram. 

Congress declared war on Germany on April 4, 1917. 

The U.S. entered a distant war with a small and unprepared military. 

The nation was unprepared for modern warfare in multiple aspects. 

Significant time was needed to build, train, equip, and deploy an effective army and navy to Europe. 

The U.S. lacked a tradition of maintaining large standing armed forces or military reserves during peacetime. 

Unlike European nations, the U.S. did not have a system for quickly equipping and mobilizing reservists and conscripts. 

Historically, the U.S. relied on volunteerism to fill military ranks. 

Many young men were motivated by patriotic duty and adventure, often seeking training at army camps before the war. 

American labor organizations preferred voluntary service over conscription. 

Labor leader Samuel Gompers advocated for volunteerism, emphasizing organized labor's opposition to compulsion and promoting American values as a model for mobilization 

Congress established an equitable system for military conscription despite concerns about public resistance. 

The Selective Service Act was approved on May 18, 1917, and signed by President Wilson shortly after. 

The act replaced the unpopular bonuses and substitutes system from the Civil War and was widely accepted by the public. 

Initially, men aged 21 to 30 were required to register for compulsory military service, with basic physical fitness as the main eligibility criterion. 

The Army Medical Department assessed the health of young men, leading to the 1919 report detailing defects found in 2.5 million examined men. 

A total of 1,533,937 physical defects were recorded, with over 34% rejected or discharged due to neurological, psychiatric, or mental issues. 

Cognitive skills tests were utilized to assess intelligence among recruits, with about 1.9 million men tested. 

The Army Alpha test was given to literate soldiers, while illiterates and non-English speakers took the Army Beta test. 

Robert M. Yerkes developed these tests and concluded that recruits' mental age averaged around thirteen years, particularly among immigrants. 

Yerkes’ findings were later criticized for misrepresenting recruits' education levels and flaws in test design. 

Army service provided opportunities for social interaction between native-born and foreign-born soldiers, similar to experiences in the Civil War. 

During World War I, the army was initially hesitant to accept immigrants due to public sentiment against "hyphenated Americans," leading to some segregation within units. 

Racial attitudes among white Americans led to segregation of white and Black soldiers in different units. 

Black leaders, including W. E. B. Du Bois, supported the war effort and advocated for Black soldiers to serve at the front. 

Military service was viewed by Black leaders as an opportunity to prove their worthiness for full citizenship. 

The War Department restricted Black troops from combat and assigned them to segregated service units as laborers. 

Efforts were made to control the experiences of Black soldiers to prevent them from questioning their social status. 

Black soldiers' experiences in France were transformative despite the segregation they faced. 

The U.S. government implemented social control measures for soldiers overseas to prevent them from engaging in European vices. 

Organizations like the YMCA provided recreational and educational activities for soldiers. 

Women actively participated in military and civilian organizations during the war, marking a significant shift in gender roles. 

Women filled positions in administrative roles, allowing more men to join combat units. 

Women served as telephone operators, clerical workers, and nurses in the military, with around 25,000 nurses serving in the Army and Navy. 

Female nurses and doctors faced challenges, including being non-commissioned officers and experiencing abuse without a system for redress. 

Millions of women volunteered in civilian organizations like the American Red Cross, YMCA/YWCA, and the Salvation Army during the war. 

Women engaged in tasks such as rolling bandages, preparing meals, packaging supplies, and organizing fund-raisers in communal spaces. 

Volunteer opportunities allowed women to participate in public activities and promote charitable efforts for the war. 

Female volunteers encouraged community involvement, including participation from children. 

A small percentage of women served with the American Expeditionary Force in France. 

Jim Crow segregation presented barriers for Black women in both military and civilian roles during the war. 

Black women were prohibited from serving as enlisted or appointed medical personnel in the military. 

Some Black female doctors and nurses joined the French Foreign Legion to escape racism in the American army. 

Black women faced discrimination in wartime civilian organizations, being denied equal participation by white leaders. 

They formed auxiliary units with limited guidance and recruited support from their communities for the nearly 200,000 Black soldiers and sailors. 

While many female volunteers focused on the home front, three YMCA secretaries worked directly with Black troops in France. 

In the early years of WWI, Americans were largely indifferent to European events. 

The political landscape was dominated by Progressive Era reform politics. 

Public concern focused primarily on changes in the government's role at home. 

The brutal realities of modern warfare became impossible to ignore, with high casualty rates and widespread destruction in Europe. 

A growing belief emerged that the fate of the Western world hinged on the Allies' victory or defeat. 

President Wilson, a progressive leader, promoted a vision of global democracy while maintaining a stance of neutrality. 

Despite neutrality, the economic power of the U.S. was seen as influential in the war's outcome. 

By 1916, American trade with the Allies had tripled, while trade with the Central Powers dropped to less than 1% of previous levels. 

The war in Europe sparked intense national debates about military preparedness in the U.S. 

Allies and Central Powers rapidly mobilized large military forces, while the U.S. had a small military at the time of entry. 

The U.S. focused on mobilizing military resources and building popular support, leading to extensive publicity and propaganda efforts. 

President Wilson established the Committee on Public Information (Creel Committee) led by George Creel to promote patriotism and military support. 

The committee collaborated with Hollywood and media to frame the war as a struggle between democracy and imperialism. 

The narrative portrayed America as a crusading nation defending Western civilization against backwardness and militarism. 

Dissenting views against the war were labeled disloyal, leading to the passage of the Espionage Act (1917) and the Sedition Act (1918). 

These acts curtailed the rights of dissenters and resulted in imprisonment for critics and protesters. 

Immigrants, labor unions, and political radicals were targeted by government investigations and faced public hostility. 

The government encouraged financial support for the war through war bonds and the Liberty Loan Drive, emphasizing individual contributions. 

Many Americans made significant sacrifices beyond financial contributions for the war effort. 

In spring 1918, a new strain of influenza emerged in Haskell County, Kansas. 

The virus quickly spread to Camp Funston, a major U.S. army training camp. 

The outbreak was exacerbated by troop movements and deployments to various locations. 

By May 1918, fourteen large military training camps in the U.S. reported influenza outbreaks. 

The virus spread to all training camps in the U.S. by September 1918 and mutated into a more deadly strain. 

The second wave primarily affected young adults aged 18 to 35. 

Known as the "Spanish Influenza," it was misattributed to Spain due to early media reports. 

The pandemic resulted in an estimated 50 million deaths worldwide. 

Reports indicated that while 227,000 American soldiers were hospitalized for combat injuries, nearly 500,000 suffered from influenza. 

The epidemic peaked during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in fall 1918, weakening both American and German forces. 

More soldiers died from influenza during the war than from combat. 

The pandemic continued after the war and faded in the early 1920s, with no cure ever discovered. 

The flu virus spread globally while Europe and America celebrated the end of World War I. 

On December 4, 1918, President Wilson became the first sitting American president to travel overseas. 

Wilson aimed to shape the post-war peace settlement. 

The war led to the collapse of four major empires: German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman. 

The map of Europe was redrawn to create new independent nations. 

Allied forces occupied German territories in the Rhineland to prevent further conflict. 

President Wilson and Allied leaders convened at the Paris Peace Conference in Versailles to define the war’s settlement. 

The Treaty of Versailles officially ended the war after months of deliberation. 

On January 8, 1918, Wilson presented the Fourteen Points, outlining war aims and peace principles. 

Germany and the Allies dismissed the Fourteen Points initially, with the Allies focused on their own national interests. 

Wilson's vision included the establishment of the League of Nations to ensure global peace and security. 

Allies were skeptical of the League, prioritizing their nations' safety over Wilson's vision. 

British Prime Minister Lloyd-George focused on maintaining Britain's empire, while French Prime Minister Clemenceau sought reparations and limitations on Germany. 

The final Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919, was a compromise with reparations for Germany and provisions for the League of Nations. 

Wilson viewed the treaty as an imperfect peace but preferred it to no agreement at all. 

The main struggle for the League of Nations occurred within the United States. 

Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts was the leading opponent of the League. 

Lodge, as chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, had significant influence to block treaty ratification. 

He criticized the treaty for potentially undermining U.S. sovereignty. 

Lodge advocated for the U.S. to address its own issues independently, without League oversight. 

President Wilson attempted to rally public support for the League through a nationwide campaign. 

During this campaign, Wilson suffered a debilitating stroke, weakening his position. 

Ultimately, Lodge's opposition led to the failure of the League of Nations in the Senate. 

The League was established with fifty-eight member nations but lacked U.S. participation and support. 

The war significantly transformed the global landscape, particularly in the Middle East. 

For centuries, the Ottoman Empire was the primary influence in the region, alongside Egypt and Iran. 

President Wilson's appeal for self-determination resonated with those under Ottoman rule. 

The King-Crane Commission found a majority favored an independent state free from European control. 

However, these aspirations were largely ignored; former Ottoman lands were divided into mandates via the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. 

The Ottoman Empire disintegrated into several nations, with new borders drawn by European powers without considering ethnic realities. 

Britain and France ruled the former Ottoman Arab provinces, while Turkey emerged from Anatolia. 

The League of Nations described mandates as regions inhabited by peoples not yet ready for self-governance, essentially a form of imperialism. 

France was assigned Syria; Britain took Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan; the U.S. declined to become a mandate power. 

The geographical reshaping of the Middle East included the creation of the Kingdom of Hejaz and Yemen. 

The Kingdom of Hejaz, ruled by Sharif Hussein, lasted only until the 1920s before merging into Saudi Arabia. 

The 1917 Russian Revolution heightened American fears of communism, leading to a Red Scare. 

The Sacco-Vanzetti case highlighted U.S. anxieties over immigrants and radical ideas during this period. 

In March 1918, the Bolsheviks signed a peace treaty with Germany, prompting Allies, including the U.S., to intervene in Russia against Bolshevik influence. 

American troops remained in Russia until 1920, reflecting a complex relationship with self-determination amidst rising anticommunism. 

The United States faced harsh postwar realities, leading to racial tensions. 

The Red Summer of 1919 saw violence in at least twenty-five cities, including Chicago and Washington, D.C. 

Riots were fueled by wartime racial tensions and labor shortages due to industrial war production. 

Thousands of Black southerners migrated to the North and Midwest to escape poverty, leading to significant racial conflict with white northerners and returning veterans. 

Many Black Americans, having fought in World War I, rejected postwar racism and demanded equality. 

W. E. B. Du Bois emphasized the determination of returning Black soldiers to fight for democracy. 

In 1919, the Red Summer resulted in widespread riots, injuries, deaths, and property destruction from April to October. 

The Chicago Riot (July 27 - August 3, 1919) was the worst, characterized by mob violence and arson. 

The riots marked a shift where empowered Black Americans defended their communities against white aggression. 

White interpretations of Black resistance varied, seen either as a call for revolution or a step toward civil rights. 

James Weldon Johnson remarked on the determination of Black Americans to secure their rights in response to violence. 

The events of 1919 significantly transformed American society, instilling fear and determination among its people. 

World War I had lasting global effects, leading to a depression, a second world war, and geopolitical changes. 

Postwar instabilities contributed to radicalism, dissent, and negative attitudes toward immigration in the U.S. 

The aftermath of the war left a disillusioned America facing an uncertain future.