U3b In-Class Notes

Learning: Long lasting change in behavior due to experience

Association

• We learn by association: Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence

• Associative Learning is learning that two events occur together

  • two stimuli

  • a response and it’s consequence

    

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov

  • originally a digestive scientist

  • PAVLOV'S DOGS: In this classic experiment, dogs were conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, which was initially a neutral stimulus. The bell became associated with the unconditioned stimulus of food, resulting in the conditioned response of salivation when the bell rang, even in the absence of food.

• Dog Experiment (meant to study digestion)

  • Hypothesized that presented dogs with food they would salivate

  • Dogs started drooling before food was in the room

  • Dogs must have learned how to salivate (conditioned reflex)

• Classical Conditioning is a passive learning (automatic learner does NOT have to think)

  • stubbing toe

  • jump scare in a movie

• First you need an unconditional relationship

• Next you find a neutral stimulus (something that by itself elicits no response)

• You present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times

• We know learning takes place when the previously neutral stimulus gets a response

• The neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS)

• The Unconditioned response becomes a conditioned response (CR)

Unconditioned Response (UCR) → Conditional Response (CR)

Neutral Stimulus (NS) → Conditional Stimulus (CS)

• TRICKY FACT: We know learning exists because the CS is linked to the UCS (this is called AQUISTION)

  • Does not least forever

  • Moment CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION

  • Spontaneous Recovery: Sometimes after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented.

Timing Matters:

Learned Taste Aversion (Garcia Koelling Effect)

• When it comes to food, being paired with sickness, the conditioning is very strong

• Even when food and sickness are hours apart

• Food must be salient (noticeable)

• Garcia and Koell

• ing Study (Shown below in table)

  • Studied rats and how they make associations

  • Some associations seem to be adaptive

    CS	UCS	Learned Response
    Loud Noise	Shock	Fear
    Loud Noise	Radiation (nausea)	Nothing
    Sweet Water	Shock	Nothing
    Sweet Water	Radiation (nausea)	Avoid Water

THE OFFICE EXAMPLE:

• Jim's prank on Dwight where he conditions him to expect a mint every time he hears the sound of a computer rebooting.

• This illustrates how a neutral stimulus (the computer reboot sound) can become associated with an unconditioned stimulus (the mint), leading to a conditioned response (Dwight expecting the mint).

  • Unconditioned Stimulus = The mint

  • Unconditioned Response = Dwight expecting a mint

  • Neutral Stimulus = Computer reboot sound

  • Conditioned Stimulus = Computer reboot sound

  • Conditioned Response = Dwight expecting a mint

    • 
      

Operant Conditioning

The learner is NOT passive — this is learning based on consequence!

The basic law of effect

• Remember the name Edward Thorndike because he was a pioneer in the study of operant conditioning, demonstrating how behaviors are influenced by their consequences through his famous puzzle box experiments with cats.

• Thorndike locked cats in a cage and used experiments to show this process known as instrumental learning:

  • Behavior changes because of consequences

  • Rewards strengthen behavior

  • Unpleasant consequences decrease behavior

Inventor of Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner

• Operant chamber/Skinner Box

  • Chamber with a bar/key that an animal manipulates to obtain food or water reinforcer

  • contains devices to record responses

Reinforcers

remember: POSITIVE ≠ GOOD & NEGATIVE ≠ Bad

POSITIVE = ADDITION & NEGATIVE = SUBTRACTION, indicating that positive reinforcers add a desirable stimulus while negative reinforcers remove an aversive stimulus.

• reinforcement is meant to increase a behavior

• Positive Reinforcement: Involves presenting a stimulus after a desired behavior is exhibited, increasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future.

  • aka the addition of something pleasant

• Negative Reinforcement: Involves the removal of an aversive stimulus when a desired behavior occurs, also increasing the likelihood of that behavior

  • the removal of something unpleasant

  • Two types of NR:

    Escape Learning: Involves taking an action to terminate an unpleasant stimulus, such as leaving a situation that is uncomfortable.	Avoidance Learning: Involves taking steps to prevent an unpleasant situation from occurring, such as studying to avoid failing a test.
    getting kicked out of class	vs cutting class

Premack Principle:

• You have to take into consideration the reinforcers used

• Is the reinforcer water.. or at least is it more preferable than the targeted behavior

  • Five Guys might be a great positive reinforcer for me, but it would not work well for a vegetarian

  • Your dog doesn’t want $100 but wants a nice steak

Punishment (meant to decrease a behavior)

• Positive Punishment

  • Addition of something unpleasant

• Negative Punishment/Omission Training

  • removal of somethin pleasant

• Punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh!

How do we use Operant Conditioning? Do we wait for the subject to deliver the desired behavior?

• We sometimes use shaping: reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior.

• Examples:

  • Potty Training

  • To train a dog to get your slippers you have to teach it in small steps (putting them in his mouth, then bringing slippers to them)

Reinforcement Scheduling & Token Economy

TOKEN ECONOMY

• every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given

• they can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers)

• used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools

What type of reinforcement?

Continuous v. Patial Reinforcement:

Fixed Ration: Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses

Variable Ratio: Provides a RANDOM number of responses (acquisition and extinction is hard)

Fixed-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Reinforcement schedules in operant conditioning describe how rewards are given for certain behaviors. A fixed-ratio schedule provides a reward after a specific number of actions are taken. For example, if a child receives a treat after every three chores, that’s a fixed-ratio schedule.

In contrast, a variable-ratio schedule offers a reward after an unpredictable number of actions. This means that the child might get a treat after two chores one time and after five chores the next time, making it exciting and encouraging them to keep going.

The fixed interval schedule gives a reward only after a specific time has passed. For instance, if a student receives a reward for completing homework every Friday, that’s a fixed interval schedule, as the reward is based on time rather than the number of completed tasks.

Lastly, the variable interval schedule rewards a behavior at random times. This means the student might receive a reward after two days, then after four days, and then again after one day. This randomness keeps them constantly engaged and guessing when the next reward will come.

Types of Learning

Cognitive Map: A mental representation of one's physical environment, allowing individuals to navigate and understand spatial relationships. For example, a student may develop a cognitive map of their school, knowing where classrooms, the library, and restrooms are located without needing a physical map.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

• Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll

  • Control Group: Had kids watch videos of people playing with toys in another room, and let them play with those toys. When the kids walk in, then they leave.

  • Experimental Group: Woman attacked the BoBo doll and then let the kids into the room, and they reacted in extremely violent ways. Were more likely to pick up the toy gun (although the adults did not hit the doll)

  • Had kids watch videos of adults interacting with the BoBo doll in either aggressive or non-aggressive ways, which significantly influenced the children's subsequent behavior towards the doll.

    • uses a baby doll as an assault weapon

• We learn through modeling behavior from others

  • we learn aggression by watching others

• Observational learning + operant conditioning = Social Learning Theory

LATENT LEARNING

• Edward Toleman and his 3 rat experiment

  • 3rd Group: Even though they were wandering randomly, they were actually building cognitive maps of the maze in their head once they displayed their learning (made their way to the cheese put at the end of the 5th way through the maze)

• Latent means hidden

• Sometimes learning is not immediately evident

• Rats needed a reason to display what they have learned

INSIGHT LEARNING

• Wolfgang Kohler and his Chimpanzees

• Some animals learn through ‘ah ha’ experiences

• a type of problem-solving characterized by a sudden realization of a solution, often after a period of contemplation or trial-and-error.

Names to Know

• BF Skinner

  • Psychologist known for his work on operant conditioning and behaviorism, emphasizing the role of reinforcement in learning.

  • His experiment was with rats in a maze, where he demonstrated how positive reinforcement could lead to faster learning and problem-solving.

  • He tested pigeons by placing them in a box where they had to peck a lever to receive food, illustrating the principles of reinforcement and shaping behavior through rewards.

• Law of effect guy was Edward Thorndike, who proposed that responses followed by satisfying consequences become more likely to occur, while those followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.

• Pavlov basically made classical conditioning with his dog/siliva experiment

• Albert Bandura’s experiment was with children and the Bobo doll, demonstrating the concept of observational learning and how behavior can be influenced by the observation of others.

• Edward Toleman’s experiment was with rats in a maze, which illustrated the concept of latent learning and cognitive maps, showing that learning can occur without reinforcement.

• Wolfgang Kohler’s experiment was with chimpanzees, where he explored insight learning and problem-solving abilities, demonstrating that animals can exhibit sudden understanding to solve complex tasks.

• John B. watson did the little albert experiment