Untitled Flashcards Set

Nature vs. Nurture

• Definition: The debate about whether genetics (nature) or environment and upbringing (nurture) influence a person’s traits and behaviors more.

• Example: Whether a child’s intelligence is primarily shaped by genetic factors (nature) or the environment they grow up in (nurture).

Behavioral Perspective (Watson, Skinner, Pavlov)

• Definition: Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned through conditioning.

• Example: A child learning to associate a bell with food (Pavlov’s classical conditioning).

  • Watson: Studied how emotions can be conditioned (Little Albert).

  • Skinner: Developed the theory of operant conditioning (reinforcement and punishment).

Cognitive Perspective (Piaget)

• Definition: Focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, problem-solving, and learning.

• Example: A child at the preoperational stage is unable to understand conservation but can engage in pretend play.

Humanistic Perspective

• Definition: Focuses on personal growth and self-actualization, emphasizing free will.

• Example: A person striving to meet their full potential through self-awareness and reflection.

Evolutionary Perspective (Darwin)

• Definition: Focuses on how natural selection and evolution influence behavior.

• Example: The preference for sweet foods because they were historically linked to energy sources.

Neuroscience

• Definition: Focuses on how the brain and nervous system affect behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

• Example: The role of neurotransmitters like dopamine in regulating mood.

Psychodynamics/Psychoanalysis (Freud)

• Definition: Focuses on unconscious processes and early childhood experiences.

• Example: A person’s anxiety stemming from repressed memories of childhood trauma.

Research and Statistics

Types of Research

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment.

  • Example: Watching how children interact during recess.

• Case Study: In-depth study of a single subject or small group.

  • Example: Studying a rare psychological disorder in one patient.

• Correlational Study: Measures the relationship between two variables.

  • Example: Studying the relationship between sleep and academic performance.

• Experiment: Manipulating variables to determine cause and effect.

  • Example: Testing whether a new drug reduces symptoms of depression.

• Survey: Asking people questions to gather data.

  • Example: Conducting a poll about consumer preferences.

Research Terms

• Replication: Repeating an experiment to see if results are consistent.

• Operational Definitions: Specific definitions of variables so they can be measured.

• Overconfidence: Overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs or judgments.

• Generalization: Extending results from a study to a broader population.

• Random Assignment v. Random Selection:

  • Random Assignment: Assigning participants to groups by chance.

  • Random Selection: Randomly choosing participants from a population.

• Double-Blind Experiment: Both participants and experimenters are unaware of key aspects of the study.

Statistical Correlation

• Numerical Range: Correlation values range from -1 to +1.

  • Example: A correlation of 0.8 means a strong positive relationship.

• Causation vs. Correlation: Causation shows cause and effect, while correlation only shows a relationship.

Neuroscience

Central vs. Peripheral Nervous System

• Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Neuron Types

• Motor Neuron: Carries signals from the brain to muscles.

• Sensory Neuron: Carries sensory information to the brain.

• Interneuron: Connects neurons within the brain and spinal cord.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Sympathetic: Prepares the body for "fight or flight."

• Parasympathetic: Calms the body after stress ("rest and digest").

Brain Parts

• Cerebellum: Coordination and balance.

• Amygdala: Emotion processing (fear).

• Reticular Formation: Arousal and alertness.

• Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis and drives (hunger, thirst).

• Hippocampus: Memory formation.

• Medulla: Controls vital functions (heart rate, breathing).

• Corpus Callosum: Connects left and right brain hemispheres.

• Thalamus: Sensory relay station.

• Sensory and Motor Cortex: Sensory input and motor output.

Learning

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

• Definition: Learning through association.

• Example: A dog salivates when hearing a bell (Conditioned Response) after being conditioned with food (Unconditioned Stimulus).

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

• Definition: Learning through reinforcement or punishment.

• Example: A child receives praise (positive reinforcement) for completing homework.

Sensation and Perception

Weber’s Law

• Definition: The difference threshold is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus.

• Example: You’ll notice a small weight difference more easily when holding 1 lb than 100 lbs.

Trichromatic Theory

• Definition: Colors are perceived through three primary colors (red, green, blue).

• Example: Red-green colorblind individuals lack the ability to perceive red and green accurately.

Cognition, Language & Memory

Encoding

• Definition: The process of getting information into memory.

• Example: Repeating a phone number to remember it.

Memory Types

• Implicit Memory: Unconscious memory (skills, procedures).

• Explicit Memory: Conscious memory (facts, events).

Mnemonics

• Definition: Memory aids or tricks.

• Example: Using "PEMDAS" to remember the order of operations in math.

States of Consciousness

Stages of Sleep

• REM: Rapid eye movement, dreaming stage.

• EEG Waves:

  • Beta: Active, alert.

  • Alpha: Relaxed, calm.

  • Theta: Light sleep.

  • Delta: Deep sleep.

Disorders

Narcolepsy

• Definition: Sudden and uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Apnea

• Definition: Breathing interruptions during sleep.

Intelligence & Testing

"g" (General Intelligence)

• Definition: A general intelligence factor that underlies all cognitive abilities.

• Example: Someone who performs well in math, language, and problem-solving.

IQ Formula

• Definition: IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100.

Development

Piaget’s Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor Stage: Object permanence (objects continue to exist even when unseen).

• Preoperational Stage: Egocentrism, conservation.

• Concrete Operational Stage: Logical thinking, conservation.

• Formal Operational Stage: Abstract thinking.

Vygotsky

• Scaffolding: Temporary support to help a learner achieve tasks.

• Zone of Proximal Development: The gap between what a learner can do independently and with guidance.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

• Crises: Stages of development where conflicts are resolved.

  • Example: Identity vs. Role Confusion in adolescence.

Parenting Styles

Authoritative

• Definition: Balanced parenting with warmth and structure.

• Example: Setting clear rules while encouraging independence.

Authoritarian

• Definition: Strict and controlling, with little warmth.

• Example: Parents impose strict curfews without explanation.

Permissive

• Definition: Lenient with few demands or controls.

• Example: Parents avoid setting limits and allow children to make decisions on their own.

Here are the terms that were not fully covered, along with their definitions and scenarios for more clarity:

Terms Not Fully Covered:

Theory of Mind

• Definition: Theory of Mind is the ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and perspectives, which may differ from one's own.

• Scenario: A young child who has developed Theory of Mind might recognize that if their sibling is crying, they may feel sad about losing a toy, even if the child does not feel the same way.

Emerging Adulthood

• Definition: A developmental stage between adolescence and full adulthood, typically occurring from ages 18 to 25. It is characterized by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and a sense of possibility.

• Scenario: A 22-year-old may be deciding whether to pursue a career in medicine or the arts, living independently for the first time, and exploring different relationships, without yet taking on the full responsibilities of adulthood.

Social Clock

• Definition: The culturally and socially expected age at which certain milestones (e.g., marriage, having children, buying a home) should be reached. Social clocks vary between cultures and over time.

• Scenario: A 30-year-old might feel societal pressure to get married or have children due to the prevailing social norms in their culture, even though they may not feel ready for those commitments.

Additional Details on Other Terms:

Longitudinal vs. Cross-Sectional

• Longitudinal Study: A research design where the same group of individuals is studied over a long period of time to observe changes and developments.

  • Scenario: A longitudinal study might follow a group of children from ages 3 to 18 to track how their cognitive abilities and social behaviors change as they grow.

• Cross-Sectional Study: A study that compares different groups of individuals at one point in time, often of different ages, to identify differences.

  • Scenario: A researcher might compare the cognitive abilities of 5-year-olds, 10-year-olds, and 15-year-olds to understand how children's thinking evolves.

Imprinting

• Definition: Imprinting is a rapid form of learning occurring at a particular life stage, during which a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, often the mother.

• Scenario: In Konrad Lorenz's famous experiment, ducklings imprinted on him when he was the first moving object they saw after hatching.

Critical Period

• Definition: A specific time during development when the brain is particularly sensitive to certain stimuli or experiences, and exposure to these stimuli is crucial for normal development.

• Scenario: If a child does not hear language during a critical period (the first few years of life), they may never fully develop the ability to speak or understand language.

Cognition (Piaget)

• Definition: Cognitive development refers to the process by which children learn to think, reason, and understand the world around them. Piaget’s theory suggests that children go through four stages of cognitive development.

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory (4 Stages)

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):

   • Key Concept: Object Permanence – The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.

   • Scenario: A baby under 6 months will not search for a toy if it is hidden, but after developing object permanence, they will search for it.

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):

   • Key Concepts: Egocentrism (difficulty in seeing things from others' perspectives), Animism (attributing lifelike qualities to inanimate objects), and Conservation (understanding that quantity doesn’t change despite changes in shape).

   • Scenario: A child might think that a taller glass holds more liquid, even though both glasses hold the same amount. They may also believe their stuffed bear can feel sad like a human.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

   • Key Concept: Conservation – The understanding that quantity remains the same even when its appearance changes.

   • Scenario: A child can now recognize that if a piece of clay is rolled into a ball or flattened into a pancake, the amount of clay remains unchanged.

4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and older):

   • Key Concept: Abstract thinking – The ability to think logically about hypothetical situations.

   • Scenario: A teenager can think about abstract concepts like justice and freedom, and engage in systematic problem-solving.

Schema, Assimilation, Accommodation

• Schema: A mental framework or structure used to organize and interpret information.

  • Scenario: A child may have a schema for “dog” that includes characteristics like fur, four legs, and barking.

• Assimilation: The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

  • Scenario: If the child sees a new animal, a cat, they might assimilate it into their dog schema by thinking it’s a dog with a different look.

• Accommodation: The process of modifying existing schemas to include new information.

  • Scenario: The child learns that a cat is different from a dog and changes their schema to understand that not all animals with fur and four legs are dogs.

Lev Vygotsky – Scaffolding, Zone of Proximal Development

• Scaffolding: A method where teachers or parents provide support to a child during learning, gradually removing assistance as the child gains independence.

  • Scenario: A parent might help a child with math problems by explaining each step. As the child becomes more proficient, the parent reduces help.

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The range of tasks a child can perform with guidance but cannot yet do alone.

  • Scenario: A child might be able to solve a math problem if shown how to do it, but would not be able to solve it independently yet.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

• Crisis in each stage: Erikson outlined 8 stages where individuals face specific crises that need to be resolved to develop properly.

Attachment – Baby Monkey Experiment (Harlow)

• Definition: Harlow’s study with baby monkeys demonstrated the importance of comfort and nurturing in attachment, showing that baby monkeys preferred a soft surrogate mother over one made of wire that provided food.

Parenting Styles (Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive)

• Authoritative: Parents are responsive to the child’s needs and set clear, reasonable expectations. It is associated with high self-esteem and social competence in children.

  • Scenario: A parent listens to their child's concerns and explains why rules exist, allowing the child to have some input.

• Authoritarian: Parents impose strict rules and expect obedience without question. It is associated with less independence in children.

  • Scenario: A parent demands their child follow rules without explaining why or allowing any flexibility.

• Permissive: Parents are lenient and avoid setting firm boundaries, which can lead to children struggling with discipline.

  • Scenario: A parent might let their child stay up late without enforcing bedtime rules.

Morpheme, Phoneme

• Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning in language (e.g., "un-", "cat", "-ed").

  • Scenario: The word “cats” has two morphemes: “cat” and the plural suffix “-s.”

• Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound in language (e.g., the sounds of “b,” “a,” and “t” in “bat”).

  • Scenario: The phonemes in the word “bat” are /b/, /æ/, and /t/.

Morpheme: The smallest meaningful unit of language, which can be a word or a part of a word (e.g., "un-" in "undo").