HRE33 - Unit 1 - The Early Church: Jewish Roots to Persecutions to the Religion of the Empire

Background to the Birth of Christianity

• Hellenism - The concept of a wider expansion of Greek culture

  • Begins with Alexander the Great, and leads into the Roman Empire

    • He wanted unity within the empire, and incorporated other people into his Greek worldview

  • It became a vast, common empire, with Babylon as its centre

  • Greek was the common language of commerce/trade, and larger, abstract ideas

    • The common translation of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, was in Greek

  • The empire shared established cultures and references

  • It had a rich philosophical tradition, but there was a gap in its spirituality - there was no loving, personal God

    • There became a slow rejection of polytheistic views

• Rome

  • Pax Romana - The 200-year period of prosperity and stability within Rome, around the time of Christ

    • Rome was ruled by Octavius just before Christ’s birth

  • Rome established primary trade routes which could easily move people safely throughout the Empire, especially Roman citizens

    • Had large military protection

    • Increased communication across the Empire

  • Romans prized unity as an empire, showed through religion

    • Following Roman religion, especially paganism, was a sign of citizenship and loyalty to Rome, proving its strength as a collective

    • Rome would allow conquered areas to practice local religions if Roman gods and emperors were also worshipped

    • Rome took on philosophy such as the natural law, virtues, and morality

    • There was limited tolerance towards Jews only to practice their faith because it was seen as an ancient thing

  • Socioeconomic factors created a society where some members needed hope

    • The economy created a division of wealth that placed a heavy tax burden on the poor

    • Women had little power

    • Slaves were beholden to others

    • The message of “the last will be first…” would have been greatly accepted by the disenfranchised

• Judaism

  • Throughout their history, the Jews were usually conquered by another entity, until David and Solomon ruled as kings

    • These kingdoms were seen as the ideal that should be returned to

  • They believed they were the exclusive chosen people, so they would not adapt to Rome

  • They believed God would work through them for His plan, and were expecting a Messiah

    • Because of tradition and prophets, they had faith that God would restore the kingdom by the “anointed one,” but could not agree

    • They were also dissatisfied with the current rulers

    • They expected that God would send a Messiah for Israel and a “King from David”

  • They had based their faith in the Pentateuch

  • They worshipped God in faith and obligation

  • There were four main groups

    • Sadducees - Did not expect the messiah, worked with Rome to gain power, did not believe in an afterlife

    • Pharisees - Valued tradition, pious, strictly observed laws, had the most influence in Judaism, made up many teachers in the temples,

    • Essenes - Ascetic, detached, preserved writings, rejected many earthly things, awaited the Messiah

    • Zealots - Political, anti-Rome, sought to overthrow Rome

  • The temple was the centre of worship

  • The daily life was religious

  • They had monotheism, a sabbath, dietary laws, and the Moral Law, in contrast with the mechanical morals of the Romans

    • This created an exclusive “us and them” mentality

    • They would not integrate with Gentiles

  • The Diaspora - The dispersal of the Jewish people after a history of exiles, revolts, and moving

    • This allowed audiences everywhere to accept the arrival of a Messiah

    • Faith became more local once the temple in Jerusalem is destroyed in 70 AD

    • They would gather in synagogues for teachings

• Non-Christian Sources

  • Support that Christ was also a historical figure

  • Thallus - An earthquake and eclipse at the time of Christ’s crucifixion

  • Tacitus - Nero persecutes the “Christians” who follow “Christus”

  • Mara Bar-Serapion - Uses Christ as the “wise king” of the Jews as an analogy

  • Phlegon - Christ had a knowledge of future events, Christ’s resurrected

  • Lucian of Samosata - Calls Christ a “crucified sage”

  • Josephus - Contemporary of the Apostles, Christ was a wise man with many followers

  • Jewish Talmud - Christ practiced “magic” that led Israel astray

• The timing of Christ’s birth is “right” by these factors, in how we understand God’s providence

The Life, Passion, Death, and Resurrection of Jesus

• Christ was born under Herod around 4BC

• His parents were in Bethlehem for a census, and Herod ordered the massacre of the innocents

  • There was a star that aligned with the time of Christ's birth

• The Gospel authors clarify what is necessary to emphasise about Christ (genealogy from Adam to Solomon to David to Christ, events in His childhood, etc.)

  • They use this to express His divinity and identity as the Messiah

  • Matthew uses genealogy from Abraham to appeal to Jewish audiences in 3 groups of 14 generations

  • Luke uses genealogy from Adam to show that Christ fulfills the covenant

• His baptism is the start of His public ministry

  • He is “anointed” by the “prophet” John to fulfill the role as King of Israel

• Theophany - The unveiling and revealing of Christ

• Christ’s message is that “The kingdom is at hand, repent”

  • Creates urgency and fellowship, but also shows that Christ restores the relationship between God

  • He emphasises forgiveness and restoration for all, especially the outcasts, and the need of God for salvation

• Christ offers a new way to live the Law and fulfills it, in a way where the morals respond to the free gift of God’s love

  • Does not abolish the Torah, as its laws prepared the Jews for Christ

• Christ shows the necessity of prayers (teaches them how to pray, prayer leads to important moments in His ministry)

• Emphasises the love of God and neighbour over worldly things and self, and sees suffering in a new light

  • Sacrifice is now the perfection of love

• Jesus performed miracles and exorcisms as a sign of His power over evil, and also to emphasise His traits, such as being concerned for the suffering, or needing human contribution to fulfill the Kingdom

  • However, early Christians did not see Him as a miracle worker, but rather a saviour

• Christ is his own authority, as He challenges understandings of the old law, God’s will, and the power to forgive sins

• Christ is the final Passover in the Last Supper, in which He frees God’s people from evil, like in Exodus

  • His central message is the Good News

• Christ’s claim to divinity was seen as blasphemous

  • Was seen as a threat, because the “Messiah” would change the landscape, spark revolution, criticize the Jewish law, or usurp current rulers

• Christ’s death is a fulfillment and repentance of the treason committed in the first covenant

• Crucifixion was considered shameful, as it was humiliating, weakening, and excruciating for a long time

  • Such a death is used as a message to other “instigators”

• The whole narrative of Christ’s life leads to His resurrection, which is the basis of Christianity

  • He conquered death

  • His resurrection suggests that the story continues

  • 40 days before his ascension - a number often used throughout scripture to prepare for a holy mission

  • He sends the Apostles the Holy Spirit to continue, especially Peter, who leads the Church on earth

The Deposit of Faith and Sacred Scripture

• The Gospels have a clear religious motivation

  • They give a snapshot of Christ and identify the Deposit of Faith to understand what He wanted to establish.

  • Not intended to be a historical book

• Deposit of Faith

  • Jesus’ teachings

  • The Apostles, who were His witnesses, are given this message and a mission

  • These teachings are the deposit of faith, which pass on prayers, rituals, and sacraments

  • Pentecost occurs, and the Apostles establish faith communities, of which they are the bishops

  • The Magisterium is formed, which solidifies the teachings into Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture, long after communities are established

• The Deposit is a fulfillment of the old testament and emphasizes the New Law which is about love, forgiveness, and the holy goal of Heaven

  • Tells us what it means to live the will of God

  • Raises the expectations - it is now inward and selfless, rather than mechanical and legalistic

  • Christ demonstrates this law through sacrifice and suffering

• The Deposit of faith becomes the mission of the Church

• The Gospels are an authoritative reflection of the deposit of faith

  • They reveal Jesus and the necessity of orienting ourselves towards God

  • Four different witnesses and accounts of Christ’s life, three of which are synoptic

  • John spends more time on the Last Supper than the other Gospels

  • No one in the early Church questioned the gospels

  • Gospel of Matthew - “man” (humanity of Jesus)

    • A local Jewish audience

    • Old testament references, and only written in Aramaic

  • Gospel of Mark - “lion” (fast paced and begins with the order to “Prepare the way of the Lord”)

    • A disciple of Peter

    • A Roman audience (mixture of Jews and gentiles) of early believers

    • Would take time to explain old Jewish traditions

  • Gospel of Luke - “bull” (priestly duties and temple sacrifices)

    • A companion of St. Paul

    • Written for a gentile audience

    • The social gospel - expresses many social concerns

  • Gospel of John - “eagle” (lofty language)

    • Wider audience, but especially Jewish Christians

    • He explains meanings and offers an interpretation

    • The last written Gospel

  • It is believed that Mark’s gospel came first, then Matthew and Luke used it as a reference

  • There are other historical texts that claim to be gospels, but were discounted in the early church

• The Pentecost is recorded in the Acts of the Apostles

  • The Church is given an intention of salvation for all

  • Christ promises that the Holy Spirit will always be with the Church

  • The Pentecost turns the Church into an outward movement

    • Immediately 3,000 are baptized

• The Church is united in Christ, with Christ, for christ

  • It is a visible and spiritual Church, and a sign of Christ on earth

    • There is a visible hierarchy and structure, with an invisible Holy Spirit guiding it

  • It is a part of the mystical body of Christ

  • One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic

    • One - There is one faith, united by Christ, symbolized by the Pope

    • Holy - It has a holy founder and a holy mission

    • Catholic - It is meant for the whole world

    • Apostolic - The succession of authority follows a lineage directly to the Apostles

  • Ecclesia - Assembly/congregation

The Apostles

• They are all primary witnesses of Christ’s life, including Matthias, who replaces Judas

• Number 12 is significant as the number of tribes of Israel, symbolizing that they are the New Covenant

• They were called to Christ from their standard lives

• The Apostles travelled far to establish new communities of faith

  • St. Peter

    • He was the “rock” of the Church and Christ’s vicar, always mentioned first among the Apostles

    • He was crucified upside down in Rome (64AD)

    • He believed he should suffer martyrdom after an encounter with Christ saying he would be crucified again

  • St. Paul

    • A well-educated, pious, Roman Pharisee

    • He persecuted Christians greatly as Saul

    • One day, on his way to Damascus, he is blinded, and Christs asks him why he is persecuting him

      • Ananias cures him, and he is baptized as Paul

    • He believed Christ directly called him to be an Apostle, and he immediately starts preaching

    • His work causes the Church to grow exponentially

    • He wrote many 13 epistles to communities, which give glimpses into early Church problems and beliefs

      • Ex. Thessalonians 4:13-18 explains what happens to those who die, and what will happen at the second coming of Christ

    • He had a wider audience, spoke Greek, and bridged Jews and Gentiles

    • He had protection under the Roman law

    • Paul left structures in charge when he would leave a community (ex. Timothy)

      • He would visit where communities were already established, such as Palestine, Asia Minor, and Jerusalem

    • He worked hard to unify the Church, and clarified teachings, practices, and beliefs, under the authority of the Apostles

    • He would collect money to support the Church

    • He was beheaded between 62 and 65 AD

  • St. Andrew

    • The brother of Peter

    • He went to Scythia, Byzantium, Greece, and Patros

    • He was crucified on an x-shaped cross

    • His feast day is November 30

  • St. James the Greater

    • Son of Zebedee, and one of the “inner circle” Apostles

    • The first Apostle martyr, after being beheaded by Herod Agrippa in 44 AD

  • St. John

    • Son of Zebedee, and one of the “inner circle” Apostles

    • Wrote the fourth Gospel and Revelations

    • The “beloved disciple”

    • He was exiled to Patmos under the reign of Domitian

  • St. Bartholomew

    • Preached in Persia

    • Flayed alive in Armenia

  • St. Matthew

    • Was first a tax collector under the name Levi

    • His mission was directed towards the Jews

  • St. Thomas

    • Was known for being doubtful but zealous

    • Went to Iran, Turkmenistan, and India

  • St. James the Lesser

    • The head of the Church in Jerusalem and presided over the council of Jerusalem

  • St. Phillip

    • Christ called Phillip, who brought Bartholomew to Christ

  • St. Thaddeus

    • The patron saint of lost causes

    • Martyred in Persia with St. Simon the Cananean

  • St. Simon the Zealot

    • Martyred in Persia with St. Thaddeus

• As it expanded, they needed to have some structure to take care of one another

  • The Apostles ordained 7 men to serve as deacons

  • The Apostles understood that they had the authority to create new roles

• St. Stephen was the first martyr after being a powerful preacher of Christ

The Council of Jerusalem (49-50 AD)

• Paul approached the Apostles regarding if Gentiles had to obey the old Jewish laws, under the influence of Judaizer beliefs

• Peter received a vision that they could eat all foods, including the “unclean”

  • Cornelius, a Gentile, has a vision to seek out Peter

  • Peter willingly talks to him, showing no bias against Gentiles, who were considered “unclean” by the Jews

• It was agreed that they only had to obey marriage laws, and could not eat animals sacrificed to pagan gods

• The council gave the Church a means to adapt to future problems, as well as spread universally

  • It also establishes authority of apostles/bishops

• The Church shifts to Rome as many Gentiles become converts, and the Jewish authority in Jerusalem is destroyed

• The Apostles would write that a decision made by their authority is good to them and the Holy Spirit, as it agrees will the will of God

The Early Christians

• They faced many prejudices, as they were aliens in their own groups

  • The Jewish Christians were persecuted in their community

  • The Gentiles were isolated in the Greco-Roman society, as they could no longer participate in pagan rituals

  • They would worship in secret to avoid gaining attention from the authorities

• However, they still had the benefit of being close in time with Christ and the Apostles

• They believed in Christ’s entrusted authority to the Apostles

  • Christ left a mission, through His established covenant, group of leaders, and body of teachings

    • He did not leave a clear theology, but it developed over time

    • The Holy Spirit would guide these leaders

• Early practices were found in the communal liturgy, sometimes continuing Jewish laws as a continuation of the Covenant

Baptism

• Mt. 28:19 - “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations”

• It was instituted by Jesus at the start of His ministry, where it became a sign for the new converts to adopt the Gospel

  • Christ was baptized with a baptism of repentance, but He instituted the Sacrament of Baptism in the Holy Spirit

• It was initially viewed as a sign of conversion to the faith

  • However, the theology adapts to the times

  • It was also viewed as the means of removing original sin

• The sacrament was first instituted for adult converts, and some would wait to be baptized on their deathbed

• Soon, a process developed, where catechumens had to be “trained” in the faith until their sponsor deemed them ready for baptism

• Although it was a sign of conversion, it was also for cleansing the soul, and infant baptism was soon implemented

  • Infant baptism allowed all to receive salvation under the threat of infant mortality

  • It would wipe away sin as soon as possible, giving a person a longer time to grow in God’s grace

  • It would immerse the whole family in the faith, while holding them responsible to ensure the upbringing of their children is in the Faith

Eucharist

• They soon began to have weekly gatherings on Sunday, chosen because of the Resurrection and Pentecost

• There would be scripture and prayer in a preserved tradition

  • Mass developed gradually through readings from the Bible, psalms and hymns, prayers, and the collection for the poor

• Christ’s words at the Last Supper would be repeated in “remembrance” of Him

• They believed that it was truly Christ’s body and blood, and this was their share in the sacrifice of Christ

• They saw this as the Passover Covenant, where they would be saved through the sacrifice

• In the early days, they would gather in private homes or catacombs

The Papacy, Episcopacy, and Priesthood

• Christ made Peter the head of the Church

• The authority of the Bishop of Rome was recognized as the supreme authority

• Pope St. Leo I centralized the power of the Church in Rome as political power shifted to Byzantium

• Pope St. Gelasius I asserted the primacy of the Roman pontiff and was the first to use the title “Vicar of Christ”

• The bishops would guide the flock of Christians amidst the dangers of persecutions

  • They would perform sacraments as well

• Priests (from the word presbyter) would be ministers of divine worship and of the Eucharistic sacrifice

  • They were subordinate to the bishops

The Scriptures

• In a synod in Rome, 382 AD, an official Canon of the Church was established

• It was definitively decided again in the Council of Trent, 1546

• The Church never considered Scriptures as authoritative apart from their interpretation by the Church through her hierarchy

  • It is interpreted under the guidance of the Holy Spirit

• The Old Testament was included, as it showed the establishment of God’s covenants

Sexual Ethics - Abortion and Contraception

• Early Christians rejected abortion, contraception, and infanticide, in contrast to the Roman society

• It was believed to violate the dignity of humans, the fifth commandment, and the natural order of human procreation

  • Greek philosophy also saw contraception as an unnatural violation

1 Clement (70-90 AD)

• Clement was the 2nd or 3rd successor of St. Peter

• Apostolic Fathers - Those who led the Church following the Apostles

• There was evidence to suggest St. John was still alive, yet the Corinthian Church would write to the Bishop of Rome instead

• He writes about how the structure of the Church should work

  • Apostolic succession should establish authority to maintain unity

  • The Church he was writing to wrongfully moved appointed bishops of the Church, in violation with the authority of the Church

  • They are still experiencing divisions among themselves, like they did in Paul’s time

The Value of Suffering

• Amidst persecution, suffering was seen as redemptive

• Jesus had suffered in the narrative of his suffering, death, and resurrection for human salvation, so human suffering was the closest we could get to that holiness

  • Good comes from suffering (Ex. strengthens and teaches us)

• The actions of the martyrs was a display of serious faith in the Christian community

  • Martyrs were venerated early

  • This caused the Church to grow

• Christianity began to grow under the context of suffering and persecutions

Martyrdom

• Martyr - “Witness”; Those who died for their faith as a witness to the person of Christ

• They were usually average converts, so their suffering strengthened other Christians

• Death was not intended to be sought after, but it was important to truly stand firm in the faith, so some martyrs were excited to be able to give themselves fully to the faith

• “[The] blood of the martyrs [is the] seed of the Church” -Tertullian

Judaism and Christianity

• Early on in the persecutions, Romans viewed Christians and Jews as the same, so they were both persecuted

  • There was a general intolerance of Christianity during this period, but actual persecutions would flare at certain times

• However, Jews viewed themselves as separate from Christianity

• As more Romans joined Christianity, it becomes more distinct from Judaism

Nero (54-68AD)

• Martyrs: Sts. Peter and Paul

• He was a paranoid tyrant

• Nero wanted to build a new Rome, so when the Great Fire of 64AD happened, he blamed the Christians to avoid suspicion

  • Christian areas were unharmed by the fire, and they were already seen as problems

• He accused Christians of “hating the human race” because they did not participate in Roman society, and he wanted them to be exterminated

  • They were burned alive or killed by animals

• The persecutions only happen in Rome, and stop when Nero dies

• This period sets the precedent for killing Christians

Domitian (81-96AD)

• He had a semi-divine status (Dominus et Deus) as an emperor

• He wanted to rebuild the important Roman traditions

• There were many shortcomings in Rome, so he used Christians as scapegoats

  • These Christians were considered “atheists” and “superstitious” because they didn’t worship pagan gods

  • Christianity had “infiltrated” the upper class, including Domitian’s family

• This was not a state-wide persecution

Trajan (98-117)

• Martyr: St. Ignatius of Antioch

• Trajan ruled at the height of the empire, where the borders were largest

• Makes Christianity illegal, but also states that Christianity is not a very large threat, so they do not need to be deliberately hunted down

Pliny-Trajan Correspondance (111 AD)

• Pliny writes to Emperor Trajan about how to persecute Christians, who were seen as a superstitious contagions

• Christianity was criminal, but Christians were only persecuted if they caused trouble

• The Christians could sacrifice to the emperor and pagan gods, or be punished

• Trajan wants to maintain unity within Rome

  • Only persecute those who have been denounced, found guilty, and refuse to worship pagan gods

  • If Christians perform the sacrifice, they would be pardoned

  • Anonymous accusations would not be accepted, as they followed law and order, not mob rule

• Christians were generally good citizens, but their stubbornness had them persecuted

St. Ignatius of Antioch (30-107 AD)

• Known as the “Bearer of God” or “Borne by God”

• Wrote many letters, including on his way to martyrdom

  • He wrote about the role and importance of the bishop and unity

  • He wrote about the presence of Christ in the Eucharist

• He was also visited by many Christians on his way to his death

Hadrian (117-138 AD)

• Believed in Roman religion creating unity

• After the Jewish revolt of 132 AD, Jews were exiled from Jerusalem, which Christians were roped into

• However, he also wanted the law to rule, not the mob

  • He only persecuted Christians who were breaking laws or causing trouble, not those who just followed Christianity

  • This was a relative period of peace for Christians

St. Polycarp of Smyrna (69-155 AD)

• A bishop who was a disciple of John and worked to preserve the deposit of faith

• He was arrested for being a Christian, but the governor wanted to spare him

  • He had to make a pagan sacrifice to be spared, but he held steadfast in his Christian faith

  • It took multiple attempts to actually kill him

• Martyred under Antoninus Pius (138-161 AD)

Martyrdom of St. Polycarp

• They were brutally lashed and tortured

• St. Polycarp prayed to God, and many were amazed at his grace

• He steadfastly refused to give up sacrifice to Roman gods

• He had a vision he should be burned alive

• When he was burned, he was like precious metals and spices being refined, rather than the burning of flesh

  • An executioner stabbed him, and the blood was so plentiful that it quenched the fire

• His death was celebrated as a holy martyrdom

Marcus Aurelius (161-180)

• Martyr: St. Justin Martyr

• A typically reasonable ruler who was an author and philosopher, but persecuted Christians

• He ruled near the end of the Pax Romana, so there was greater instability in Rome

  • There were anonymous accusations and mob persecutions

St. Justin Martyr

• A convert, and later apologist who used human philosophy and reason to allow Romans to understand Christianity

  • Although human philosophy alone is insufficient, he used the truth of Christianity to make it reasonable to human logic

  • He spoke out against false descriptions of Christianity

  • He also wrote to the emperor and high court

St. Irenaeus (130-200 AD)

• Martyred in Gaul

• He was the replacement to the Bishop of Lyons, who was martyred

  • He was seen as an enemy of the state

• Argues against heresy with systematic refutations

• He emphasized the primacy of the bishop of Rome and the importance of apostolic succession

Septimius Severus (193-211 AD)

• Martyrs: Sts. Perpetua and Felicity

• As the empire weakened, there was a challenge of maintaining unity

  • There was a need to restore Roman tradition

• He tried to implement syncretism, a combination of religions, but citizens still had to worship the emperor

• Conversions to Judaism and Christianity were outlawed by banning circumcision and baptism

• There was a relative period of peace, and more Christians were born into this somewhat tolerance

Martyrdom of Sts. Perpetua and Felicity (203 AD)

• Perpetua had an infant son

  • Her father was trying to get her to give a pagan sacrifice

  • She refused, stating “I cannot be called anything other than what I am, a Christian.”

• She was soon after baptized, and then imprisoned

  • She found the prison to be her palace, because she could truly serve God there

  • She had a vision of a tall ladder and a dragon that tried to scare people away from it. Saturus, the first of that group who was later martyred, told her to not let the dragon bite her. She then stepped on the dragon and started climbing to heaven

  • Her father visited her again, this time begging her to not be a Christian and disadvantage their family socially

• Other Christians had visited them in jail

  • It was not a widespread, systematic persecution

• They were condemned to the beasts

  • She had another vision, this time of striking her opponent on the head with her heel

• Felicitas was worried that she would not be martyred at the same time as her friends due to her pregnancy

• Some people believed these Christians were magical or superstitious

• On the day of their death, they celebrated Agape, and early eucharistic celebration

• The Romans tried to dress them as pagan gods when they were martyred, but they refused

• When the women were attacked by animals, they cared more about maintaining their modesty

• When they were being killed by gladiators, Perpetua guided his sword to her throat

• The martyrs were not killed in the ways that they feared being killed

Decius (249-251 AD)

• There was about 50 years of peace, but internal and external threats weakened the empire

• Paganism needed to be restored to unite the people and please their gods

• An empire-wide policy was put in place to create apostates in hopes of deflating Christian hopes

  • Pagan worship was made mandatory through an edict, and those who performed a pagan sacrifice were given a labellum (certificate)

    • Because many Christians grew up in relative peace, they easily caved

    • The Christians who remained steadfast were tortured and imprisoned, and became confessors

      • Confessor - One who resists persecution

      • They became the new inspirations for the faithful

• Apostate - One who abandons their faith

• Novatian Schism - The divide in the Church about whether sinners and apostates who wanted to return to the faith should be readmitted into the Church

  • Some wanted a process, some wanted a second baptism, and some believed that they could never be accepted

  • Pope St. Stephen believed that reconciliation was the mechanism for sinners to return to the Church, because Baptism was only valid once

  • Novation, a priest, disagreed with the authority of the Church

Valerian (253-260)

• Martyrs: St. Lawrence and Pope St. Sixtus II

• He saw that Decius’ attempts to persecute Christians failed, so he attacked the Church structure

  • He wrote a rescript against assembly (mass) and church leadership (bishops) because they sustained the Christian faith

Diocletian (284-305)

• Martyr: St. Agnes

• Diocletian enacted the worst persecutions against Christians

• The empire was divided into regions

  • Galerius, one of the rulers, was very hostile, and martyred the Christians who refused to join his army

• Great empire-wide persecutions begin in 303 AD

  • He wants to remove Christians from positions

  • He burns Christian texts and demands everybody gives sacrifices

  • His edicts included the destruction of Churches and Scripture, the imprisonment of clergy, mandatory sacrifices from the clergy, and pagan sacrifices from every Christian

Constantine

• After having a vision of a Christian symbol, he takes over the West, and attributes his victory to the Christian God

• In 313 AD, he signs the Edict of Milan, which decriminalizes Christianity and ends Roman-sanctioned persecutions

• He gives Christian land back, builds Churches, and encouraged unity in the empire

• He recognized the Christian God as he did the pagan Gods

• Here, the Church begins to become a part of the state

• The capital moves to Constantinople in the East

The Eastern and Western Roman Empire

• A division between East and West emerges, which the Church and state develop in

• As bishops from other influential cities, known as patriarchs, become more powerful, the primacy of the bishop of Rome becomes questioned

  • Milan - A western city with political and religious importance

  • Ravenna - A political centre

  • Jerusalem - Historically important for the faith

  • Alexandria - A centre of intellectualism

  • Constantinople - A border for Islam and the new capital

  • Antioch

Julian the Apostate

• Rejected his Christian faith and tried to restore paganism to Rome

• He created new pagan structures that imitated Christian structures such as bishops

• He restricts the ability for Christianity to practice and grow

• While it isn’t an official persecution, it creates a new fear among Christians

Theodosius (379-395 AD)

• In 381 AD, Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of Rome

  • Paganism is not supported, and pagan sacrifices are outlawed

  • Heresies become illegal

The Church and State Post-Persecutions

• When Christianity was persecuted, authentic faith allowed for unity

• Now, Christianity is favourable, so many opportunistic “Christians” threatened the authenticity and quality of faith

  • This leaves a larger space for division and heresy

• The Church becomes dependent on the state

  • While it helps maintain unity, it is also distracted by temporal affairs

  • State officials believe they have roles in spiritual matters

The Creeds

• Creeds are standards that capture the essence of Church beliefs

  • They were the product of Sacred Tradition so as to be in agreement with the Deposit of Faith

• They were defenses and statements of belief, often responding to heresies, or used in sacraments like Baptism

  • They give a historical insight into Church challenges

• Words were carefully selected to articulate the truth of the Catholic faith

• Anathema - Statements of the faith so important such that one who does not accept them is outside of the faith

• Excommunication - Outside of communion

Early Heresies

• Denials or alterations of the Deposit of Faith posed dangers against Church teachings, such as the figure of Christ

  • For example, while Platonic philosophy was helpful for understanding divine truth, it suggested that the material world (logos) was inferior, which suggests that Jesus, fully human and fully divine, is inferior to the divine God the Father

• Human reason was use to draw conclusions, but it often led to error

  • Human reason can draw correct conclusions if it does not contradict a matter of Church teaching

• Heretics must be baptized Christians

• Heresies frequently go against these teachings of the Deposit of Faith

  • Christ was born and lived as a human, and experienced real suffering in his death

  • His death was real as a sacrifice, and His resurrection was real

  • Christ was the Messiah, and did not reject Judaism

  • Jesus is God/Divine, and can perform miracles, forgive sins, and teach authoritatively

  • Christ is a leader-servant

  • There is one baptism, and the Eucharist is the real presence of God

  • There is a structured hierarchy which follows apostolic succession and is centred on the role of the bishop

Gnostic Heresies

• Gnosis - Knowledge

• Gnostic heresies believed that there was a secret knowledge for a select few to obtain salvation by

• They believed in dualistic gods: the evil demiurge that created the world, and a divine being

  • This puts the spiritual and material world in competition

• It believed that a good God cannot be material, so if Jesus was good, He could not be human

  • They misinterpreted scripture to support their views

• Church Response: Creation is good, there is a supremacy of one God, and Christ is human

Ecumenical Council

• Ecumenical Council - Bishops gathered in union with the Pope discuss central issues of the Church

• They are called when an issue threatens the Church’s unity, such as heresies

• They are called and approved by the Pope

• These councils are the highest authority through both apostolic succession and the infallibility guaranteed in faith and spirit as the Holy Spirit guides it

Church Fathers

• Church Fathers - The leaders in the faith who become influential teachers of Church writings and help the Church Develop

  • They were later known as doctors

• Their writings oppose heresies and provide insight into historical reasons for Church teachings

  • Much of what they wrote influenced official Church Teachings

• The study of their writing is called patristics

• Important Church fathers are:

  • St. Ambrose

    • A popular and influential 3rd century bishop of Milan

    • He worked hard to maintain the independence of the Church

    • When Theodosius committed a massacre, St. Ambrose made him repent

    • He made the state remove a pagan altar

    • He fought Arian heresy

  • St. Jerome

    • A rough, but well-educated character

    • He made the first official translation of the Bible into Latin so that more people could access it, and he had access to early texts from Jerusalem to make it accurate

      • Vulgate - The 4th century Latin translation of the Bible

  • St. John Chrysostom

    • An eloquent preacher and writer who served as a bishop after living as a monk

    • He was exiled twice for criticizing excess wealth and morals

      • There was a greater struggle for Church independence in the Eastern Empire

    • He forced the other bishops to sell their things

Later Heresies

• As the persecutions end, and the authenticity of the faith is diminished by opportunistic Christians, more heresies begin to rise

• A multiplicity in Church views begins to rise

• There are councils called and writings from Church Fathers to address these deviations and misinterpretations

Arianism

• Arius was a 4th century presbyter of North Africa who claimed that:

  • Jesus was not God, He was simply did His will

  • Jesus was an elevated figure, but not divine, nor equal to the Father

  • The Trinity is not real

• His views reduce Jesus to the status of a creature, and call into question teachings of the Trinity, redemption, and Incarnation

• The bishops reject his teachings, but Arius refuses to submit to the authority of the bishops, calling into question Apostolic succession

• This heresy grows over the Empire and Germanic tribes

• This prompted the Council of Nicaea

Council of Nicaea (325 AD)

• Called by Constantine, who wanted unity

  • An early example of the state’s influence on the Church

• At this point, the persecutions were still recent, and this was the first free, large-scale action of the Church

  • Bishops gathered from all over the Empire

• At this council, they settle the dispute over the person of Christ

  • Hypostasis - The person; the “who” of a being

  • Ousios - The essence; the “what” of a being

  • Homoousios - Consubstantial

    • Sts. Athanasius and Nicholas supported this

  • Homoiousios - Similar substance

    • The Arians supported this

• Eventually, it was agreed that Christ is consubstantial with God the Father

• The Council of Constantinople in 381 AD provides more clarity against Arianism, as well as Apollinarianism

Triumph of Arianism

• Arian Christianity becomes the dominant view, and Constantine reverses his position

• Pro-Nicene bishops were tortured or exiled, and they would hide their views from the state at this period

  • When the pro-Nicene emperors took over, they no longer had to hide their views

• There would be a pro-Arian and pro-Nicene bishop in conflict in every area

• The three Cappadocians and St. Hillary defended the Nicene council and were Anti-Arian

  • St. Basil the Great

  • St. Gregory of Nazianzus

  • St. Gregory of Nyssa

Christological Heresies

• They are related to the person and nature of Christ

• They are a response to Arianism, but in some manner violate the hypostatic union

  • Hypostatic Union - Jesus is one person, fully God and fully human, with a divine and human will, and with a human and divine nature

• The Church reinforces the humanity AND divinity of Christ

Sacramental Heresies

St. Augustine

• He was a sinner, but then after an intellectual awakening, he eventually becomes first a priest, then the Bishop of Hippo

  • He was first a Manichee

  • Then, he met St. Ambrose, who baptized him

  • He went on to write many Church documents and teachings, and refuted heresies

  • He was the dominant theological voice in this period

  • His “Confessions” detailed his conversion, and his “City of God” addressed pagan charges

• His writings sets the tone for Christianity in the world

  • He writes about Just War, the Trinity, grace, original sin, and evil

    • He proposes the Trinity is like a lover, beloved, and their love - they cannot exist independently, but are still three distinct entities

St. Augustine - The Problem of Evil

• Evil does not exist on its own

• Evil is the privation of good

• If there is evil, we must have a good God

• If our God is good, creation is good

• The abuse of free will and our concupiscence causes evil

• God allows and tolerates evil for our freedom’s sake, as well as allowing evil to teach and strengthen us towards a good