Chapter 6: The Road to Revolution

Salutary Neglect

• after Britain beats Spanish + French in New World, it gains land (Nova Scotia) + Newfoundland + Hudson Bay

  • a generation of peace ensued (Britain giving American colonies salutary neglect)

Advantages & Disadvantages

• French

  • United under a single command and govt

  • had support of Indians (except Iroquois (Samuel de Champlain helped the Huron Indians against Iroquois))

  • by 1750, France was the most powerful European nation — strongest army

  • have a huge expanse of land

• British

  • well-established colonies by 1750 (which have autonomy)

  • outnumbered the French 23-1 (the colonists not Britain + France)

  • settlements confined to narrow strip of land on coast

  • world’s strongest navy

  • Leadership of William Pitt (PM)

French and Indian War

• btwn French and British in the New World

• called Seven Years War in Europe

• conflict developed over land in the upper Ohio Valley — both countries claimed

• both countries tried to settle land

  • French — with forts (Dusquesne)

  • British — with small farms and forts (Necessity - tiny)

• beginning in 1754, colonists (under Washington) were repeatedly beaten

George Washington

• Background before he comes in

  • Ohio Valley (OV) is fought btwn French + British

    • it was the critical area into which the British colonists would penetrate (also for France?)

    • For France, key to linking their Canadian land w/their lower Mississippi Valley land

  • mid-1700s, there is French fort-building + cutthroat fur-trade competition in OV = British colonists want to fight for economic security + dominance in continent

  • 1749 - group of colonists (mostly Virginians) secured shaky legal “rights” to 500,000 acres in region

• 1754 - governor of Virginia sends George Washington (21 year old surveyor + fellow Virginian) to Ohio Country as lieutenant colonel in command of 150 Virginia militiamen

• French leader killed, his men retreated

• French returned w/reinforcements + Washington surrender entire command (1754)

  • This started the French and Indian War

SIDE NOTE: Seven Years’ War - French used a lot of strength in this, so not able to concentrate as much on New World (which is fortunate for British colonists)

Albany Congress

• Called by Benjamin Franklin

• British government summons intercolonial congress (1754)

• 7 of 13 colonies showed up in NY

• Proposed Albany Plan of Union

  • negotiate w/Indians (Iroquois (VERY important))

  • raise an army

  • assess taxes

  • control public land

  • loyal to England (this is not attempt to be independent)

• Long-range purpose: achieve greater colonial unity + thus bolster common defense against France

  • bc in previous wars: Americans lack of unity

• Albany delegates all adopt plan, but colonial legislatures did not (they didn’t like that it made them seem independent from England)

• it doesn’t actually do anything, but it’s an attempt at unity

Course of War

• (animosity btwn colonists+British soldiers bc British looked down on them)

• English continued to lose until William Pitt was made PM in 1756 (he changes the fighting in America)

  • replaced leaders w/men of merit

  • colonial officers ranked w/English

  • strengthened navy, more troops to America (he sees the need to win in America)

• In 1758, the British began to win battles and take land from the French (bc of William Pitt)

  • concentration on Quebec and Montreal (much more successful)

Fighting in Europe

• Britain + Prussia versus Spain, Austria, Russia

• Frederick the Great (Prussian) led a bloodbath

• Bc the French wasted so much strength in Europe, they could not throw adequate force into the New World

• “America was conquered in Germany” (the French and Indian war was won in Europe)

Treaty of Paris, 1763 — France, England, Spain

• Canada and all territory east of MS River to England (now England can claim land… right? Well, the Indians ARE there)

• West Indies were returned to Spain and France

• Spain ceded Florida and any claimed land east of Ms River to England for Cuba

• Spain got Louisiana territory (from France)

• Britain retained French land in India

• French kept two islands off the coast of Newfoundland for fishing purposes

Pontiac’s Rebellion

• background

  • conquest of French Canada = no more French anymore in New World

  • so w/o threat of French intervention, interior of America seemed open (Plus, Spain temporarily eliminated from Florida, so center of Spanish power far to West)

  • For Indians, Treaty of Paris (that ended Seven Years War) was harsh on them (plus, w/o Spanish + French, they couldn’t play these powers off of each other + now have to negotiate solely w/British)

• 1763

• Ottawa Chief Pontiac led a violent campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio county

  • laid siege to Detroit (in spring of 1763) + eventually overran most British posts west of Appalachians

• British retaliated swiftly and cruelly

  • smallpox blankets brought truce to frontier

• bc of this rebellion, the British were convinced that they needed to stabilize relations w/western Indians + to keep regular troops stationed along restless frontier (which was expensive)

• London government didn’t want to spend more money + lives on more Indian wars so issued Proclamation of 1763

  • prohibited settlement beyond Appalachians

  • many Americans angered

  • colonists defied the Proclamation

1763 - Treaty of Paris, Pontiac’s Rebellion, Proclamation of 1763 (turning point btwn British + colonists), Salutary Neglect goes away

Problems facing Great Britain

• money (colonists need to pay)

• govt of new territory (Canada)

• Govt/security for west of Appalachians

• Ownership of western land (is it going to be settled at one point)

• weakness of British leaders (a string of bad leaders (PMs + George III)

• disagreements btwn colonies and England (proclamation line, taxes)

  • the colonists are not angry abt taxation, but abt the fact that they have no representation in Parliament

Republicanism

• people choose other people to represent them

  • depended on citizenry

  • opposed to hierarchical and authoritarian institutions

• Americans look to the Greek + Roman republic models for this

Whigs

• party in England, used to be minority eventually becomes majority

  • believed that arbitrary power of the monarch threatens liberty (bc ahora monarch can do whatever he wants however he wants so monarchy need to end or be severely restricted)

SIDE NOTE: Republicanism + Whig ideas made Americans wary of British + aware when they were taking away Americans’ rights.

Mercantilism

• justified British control over colonies

• believed that wealth = power

• export more than import

• colonies bring advantages to mother country (Britain) w/this philosophy

  • colonies supply raw materials to mother country (reduce need for foreign imports) + provide guaranteed market for exports

• Parliament passed laws to regulate mercantilist system

• Not all bad: no intolerable burden (explained later) until 1763 + Americans profiting (ex. London paid a lot to colonial producers of ship parts, Virginia tobacco planters have monopoly in British market by snuffing out tiny British tobacco industry, protection of world’s mightiest navy + strong, seasoned army of redcoats)

  • Navigation Laws

    • aimed at Dutch shippers wanting in on American carrying trade

    • bc of this law, commerce flowing to + from colonies could only be transported in British (+ colonial) vessels

    • Later, European goods destined for America had to be landed in Britain (where tariff duties could be collected + British middlemen could take profits)

    • American merchants must ship certain “enumerated” products (mostly tobacco) exclusively to Britain

    • until 1763, not intolerable bc loosely enforced (people smuggled often)

    • after Seven Years’ War, Britain had a large debt (of which about half was used to protect American colonies), PM Grenville ordered navy to enforce the Navigation Laws

George Grenville

• first bad PM

• signed Proclamation of 1763

• Smuggling acts - cut down on smuggling

  • writs (piece of paper w/words on it) of assistance - gave an officer permission to search + seize w/o any cause whatsoever (4th amendment is a response to the writs of assistance)

  • trail w/o jury for smugglers

  • ship patrols

  • tighter customs services

  • John Hancock (well-known smuggler)

• Sugar Act

  • 1764

  • tax on sugar, molasses imported from outside British Empire

• Currency Act

  • 1764

  • forbade colonists to print + issue paper money (Am were trying to print money to pay for taxes)

  • taxes paid in gold and silver

• Quartering Act

  • forced colonists to provide food + quarters for British troops stationed in America

  • NY was HQ for troops, hardest hit (rioting there bc of this)

  • more resentment

  • 3rd amendment created in response to this

Stamp Act

• placed a tax on printed materials, such as newspapers, licenses

• all items taxed were American articles (made them really mad, also bc this is a direct tax)

• 1765

• to raise revenues to support military force

• Grenville thought all the acts so far were just (since British had to pay too)

  • but Americans didn’t

Virtual Representation

• Grenville was using this theory to counter “no taxation w/o representation” by claiming that Americans were represented in Parliament

  • every member of Parliament represented all British subjects

Reaction to Grenville

• colonies resented the direct taxes

• colonies said taxes were levied by Parliament w/o their consent (thus, they’re illegal)

• Stamp Act Congress —1765 (NY)

  • called by MA, 9 colonies attended

  • asserted loyal to king (they do this every time they get together (except for one?))

    • they are petitioning the king

    • they didn’t address to Parliament bc in their opinion, Parliament doesn’t have any control over them since the king was the one to give them charters, meaning the king controls the colonies

  • all taxes were illegal unless passed by colonial legislatures

• nonimportation agreements (a boycott)

• Sons of Liberty destroyed offices of stamp collectors, burned stamps (they’re the ones enforcing boycotts)

• stamp act repealed (bc taxes are not giving revenue but creating rebellion) (currency + quartering weren’t enforced) — but Declaratory Act (1766) asserted the right of Parliament to make all laws for the colonies (they made another act bc repealing the Stamp Act made Parliament look weak (Grenville gets run out))

Townshend, 1767

• indirect tax on tea, lead, paint, glass, paper

• writs of assistance were used for smuggled goods

• similar colonial reaction to Grenville (mostly non-violent)

• colonists keep up the nonimportation agreement which is a major sacrifice (choice? HA.)

Boston Massacre

• March 5, 1770

• British soldiers (bring harassed by colonists (who were throwing snowballs filled w/rocks + glass)) shot into the crowd - killed and wounded colonists

• soldiers were tried for murder — acquitted (except 2, manslaughter)

• John Adams represents soldiers bc wants to show fair trial (this does not make him popular)

Lord North 1770-1777

• PM

• repealed the Townshend Acts (except small tax on tea)

  • but resistance remained (the colonists are still not happy)

  • HMS (his majesty’s ship) Gaspee, 1772, Rhode Island

    • revenue ship

    • got stuck while chasing colonial ship

    • the colonists attack it + get the revenue from it + (tar the British revenue officers?)

  • Committees of Correspondence

    • in MA, organized by Samuel Adams

    • letter writing campaign that goes from colony to colony to colony to stir people

• Tea Act, 1773

  • act was passed to help the British East India Company (which was going broke bc colonists weren’t buying tea)

  • company was given a monopoly

  • tea tax was 3 pennies - NOT expensive (but colonists cared more abt the principle than the price)

• colonial reaction: Boston Tea Party

  • background: Hutchinson ordered tea ships not to clear Boston harbor (before bc of demonstrations, ships had to go back to England) until cargo unloaded

    • infuriated Boston’s radicals

  • dec 16, 1773

  • didn’t touch anything except tea

    • reactions varied

      • eastern seaboard - sympathetic colonists liked it

      • conservatives complained that destruction of private property violated law + threatened anarchy + breakdown of civil decorum

• British reaction to Boston Tea Party:

  • Intolerable Acts or Coercive Acts

  • designed to annoy Boston

  • port of Boston was closed until the tea was paid for

  • MA Govt Act - NO town meetings in MA (ended all local govt)

  • Quartering Act was reinstated (previously unenforced)

  • accused royal officials would be tried in England, not in the colonies

• Quebec Act

  • accompanied w/Intolerable Acts but unrelated to them

  • French guaranteed Catholic religion + permitted to retain many old customs and institutions

  • old boundaries of Quebec now extended south all the way to Ohio River

  • French Canadians liked it, American colonists thought it was another “intolerable” act (bc of the representative assembly + trail by jury)

  • aroused anti-Catholics

  • Roman Catholic church strengthened

  • in this, British figure out how to deal w/Canada (which was just to leave them alone)

Colonial Action after Intolerable Acts

• some wanted to compromise

• some wanted to enforce the laws

• some took more active steps:

  • First Continental Congress

    • sept 5, 1774

    • 12 colonies attended (not Georgia)

    • met in Philadelphia

    • decided

      • that the Intolerable Acts were null and void — authorized militia to resist

      • Declaration of Rights and Grievances — demanded the repeal of all oppressive legislation since 1763

      • renewed nonimportation agreements

      • agreed to meet in the Spring of 1775 if the Intolerable Acts were not repealed

Lexington & Concord

• April 1775

• Bg: first CC had authorized defense and MA responded with minute men

• British commander in Boston sent detachment of troops to nearby Lexington & Concord

  • supposed to seize stores of colonial gunpowder + to bag the “rebel” ringleaders (Samuel Adams + John Hancock)

• Paul Revere & Billy Dawes rode from North Church in Boston to spread alarm (“The British are coming!”)

• Lexington colonial “Minute Men” refused to disperse fast enough (shots fired that killed 8 Americans + wounded several more)

• went to Concord next but powder had been removed

  • forced to retreat by ready American militia

• British 300 casualties, 70 killed

British advantages + disadvantages

• advantages

  • professional army of around 50,000 men (American a lot but not well trained)

  • George III had treasury to hire foreign soldiers

    • 30,000 Hessians ultimately employed

  • enrolled 50,0000 American Loyalists + enlisted services of many Indians

• disadvantages

  • oppressed Ireland about to go off so British had troops detached to watch it

  • France didn’t like defeat was waiting to get back at them

  • London government confused + inept

  • many English didn’t want to kill American “cousins”

  • Whigs believed battle for British freedom being fought in America (minority but encouraged Americans)

  • army in America endless difficulties

    • generals second-rate

    • soldiers brutally treated

    • provisions often scarce, rancid, + wormy

  • distance

    • delays + uncertainties arising from storms and other mishaps

  • america enormous

    • even when Britain took many cities of every size, hardly made a dent

Colonial Strengths + Weaknesses

• strengths

  • outstanding leadership

    • George Washington, Benjamin Franklin

  • open foreign aid eventually from France

  • many European officers volunteered for pay

  • fighting defensively w/odds favoring defender

• weaknesses

  • badly organized for war

  • from start, almost fatally lacking in unity

  • individual states didn’t like Congress using power

  • hard money

    • scarce first, then rare

    • Congress didn’t want taxes (thought that would not go over well w/colonies) so printed paper money

      • not really worth much

  • inflation skyrocketed prices

Chapter 7: America Secedes from the Empire

Second Continental Congress

• In Philadelphia of May 10, 1775

• all 13 colonies

• two forces:

  • radicals — declare independence; seize British officials; ask France and Spain for aid

  • conservatives — plan for compromise (failed); resist tyranny — appointed George Washington commander of Continental Army (hope that the king will redress)

  • 14 months of inconsistency — fighting but loyal

• these ppl act as the govt after “declaring” independence

Ethan Allen & the Green Mountain Boys

• May 1775 - captured British garrisons at Ticonderoga (upstate NY), secured munitions for siege of Boston

Battle of Bunker Hill

• June 1775, colonists seized this hill

  • it was a good location for menacing the British in Boston

• the colonists were forced to abandon the hill in disorder (ran out of gunpowder)

Olive Branch Petition

• July 1775

• 2nd CC

• olive branch represents peace

• professed American loyalty to the Crown - begged King to prevent further hostilities (they said that they were still loyal, and if they stopped fighting, then the colonists would too)

Hessians

• aug 1775 - king formally proclaimed the colonies in rebellion

  • this makes fighting a hanging crime (treason)

• sept 1775 - the king hires German troops (from Hesse) to crush the rebellion

• the Hessians were mercenaries (hired killers) known for butchery (this is huge)

Common Sense

• one of the most influential pamphlets ever written

• didn’t simply call for independence but for a republic, where power flowed from people - not a despotic monarch

• all government officials should get power from popular consent

• author - radical Thomas Paine

  • had come over from Britain a year earlier

• unequivocal message + easy-to-read language

  • became a best seller

• claimed that smaller land did not control larger one

  • tiny island Britain vs. vast continent of America

• went a long way toward convincing American colonists that true cause independence not reconciliation

• colonists had been using a kind of republicanism already

  • town meetings

  • annual elections

  • popularly elected committees of correspondence

Thomas Paine

• called for a republic

  • power flows from people not from corrupt + despotic monarch

• argued that all government officials should derive authority from popular consent

• not the first person to call for republic in history

• absence of hereditary aristocracy helped w/seeing the republic as a thing that America could be in the future

• good of people matters more than private rights + interests of individuals

• not all Patriots agreed

  • some (conservatives) didn’t want hereditary hierarchy, but still wanted social hierarchy

• both conservations + radicals agreed that new nation would have white men do the shaping

Richard Henry Lee

• his resolution “these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states”

  • this was formal declaration of independence by American colonies

  • motion adopted July 2, 1776

Declaration of Independence

• reasons for colonies beginning to unite

  • colonies realize that the English would deal w/colonies only after surrender

  • colonies resented the use of Hessians, Indians, slaves (British let slaves be free if they joined their army)

  • closing of American ports

  • publication of Common Sense - by Thomas Paine, 1776

  • radical leaders began to replace conservatives in the CC

  • slaves - some colonies wanted to abolish but king wouldn’t allow (isn’t really a big reason?)

• five men appointed to write the document

  • TJ (VA)

  • Ben Franklin (PA)

  • John Adams (MA)

  • Robert Livingston (NY)

  • Roger Sherman (CT)

• adopted by CC on July 2, 1776

• signed on july 4, 1776

  • all those men that signed it, if caught, would be killed

  • John Hancock signed big bc he wanted the king to know w/o a doubt that he signed it

• self-evident truths

  • all men are created equal

  • ppl have unalienable rights that are given by God (John Locke would’ve used “natural” rights)

    • property (not on there)

    • life

    • liberty

    • pursuit of happiness

  • ppl create govt to secure/protect those unalienable rights

  • if a govt violates these rights, the ppl can change the govt (new, right of revolution)

• lists grievances in order from least to most (pursuit of happiness, liberties, life)

• this document was not created bc they believed that it would give them independence, rather, it was created in hopes that they would gain acknowledgement from other countries

Loyalists/Tories and Patriots

• colonists loyal to the king

• more numerous among older generation

• includes king’s officers + other beneficiaries of crown, Anglican clergy + large portion of their congregations

• usually most numerous where Anglican Church strongest

  • exception Virginia

• many in aristocratic New York City + Charleston + Quaker Pennsylvania + New Jersey

• Patriots - supported independence, “Whigs”

  • younger, fiery, militant

  • New England - self-govt strong; Congregationalism strong

• American Revolution was minority movement

  • many colonists were apathetic or neutral

Campaigns

• British secured control of New York — forced Washington to retreat

• Life-saving victory: Dec 25, 1776 — Washington led men across the Delaware River at night to surprise the British at Trenton, NJ — success!

• Valley Forge - winter of 1777-1778 - Washington’s Army (they don’t have anything, Washington stays with his soldiers)

• Battle of Saratoga

  • oct 17, 1777 - British surrendered at Saratoga

  • the British were trying to cut New England off and this is important bc it is the hotbed of revolution

  • turning point - revived the colonial cause and made foreign aid possible

Franco-American Alliance

• feb 6, 1778

• France recognized US independence

• agreed to wage war until America was free

• US would help defend the French West Indies

• Neither would sign a separate peace treaty - this is broken

• this alliance will be a problem bc France wants help in wars against Britain but America is too weak to get involved in any more wars in Europe

Model Treaty

• colonists wanted end to colonialism + mercantilism

• they supported free trade + freedom of seas

• drafted by Continental Congress

• drafted to guide the American commissioners the Continental Congress was about to dispatch to French court

• John Adams one of chief authors

• represents emerging thought

  • that military conflict abandoned in favor of mutual commercial interest that guarantees peaceful relations amongst states

Yorktown

• British general Cornwallis at Chesapeake Bay in Yorktown to await seaborne supplies + reinforcements

• assumed British would continue to control sea

• French w/powerful fleet

• w/French army, Washington fought on land + French blockaded on sea

• Cornwallis cornered so surrendered 7,000 soldiers

• fighting still continued for more than a year

Treaty of Paris

• Treaty was slow bc of an alliance btwn Spain + France, which required France not to end war until Spain could gain Gibraltar (southern tip of Spain that the British had)

• colonies broke the alliance w/France and made a separate peace treaty (but the French will still sign)

• Terms:

  • British recognized the independence of colonies

  • US boundaries were generous (Great Lakes, MS River, Spanish Florida) - they really could’ve stopped at Appalachian Mts

    • so that the US wouldn’t be so friendly w/France

  • Congress would recommend that confiscated loyalist property be returned

  • no obstacles to British creditor collections

Chapter 8: The Confederation and the Constitution

Pursuit of Equality

• Most states reduced property-holding requirements for voting

  • they didn’t do this just because they didn’t like poor people

  • “substantial” citizens (citizens that are educated and take part in society), people w/vested interest in goodness of the community

• By 1800, indentured servitude was dead (Bacon’s Rebellion started this ending)

• Primogeniture ended

• fight for separation of church and state (Thomas Jefferson heads this)

  • Congregational church was still legally “established”

    • means tax-supported, there isn’t separation of church and state

  • Anglican church — dis-established

• challenges to slavery

  • 1774 — 1st CC called for complete abolition of international slave trade (didn’t pass)

  • 1775 - PA Quakers, 1st antislavery society

  • some northern states abolished slavery or gradual emancipation

  • no states south of PA (or the Mason-Dixon line) abolished slavery

  • everywhere — laws discriminated against free blacks and slaves (there was actually more prejudice in the North bc they didn’t have as many free blacks)

• women — no equality (no political rights)

• Abigail Adams was a proponent for women’s rights

• “Civic virtue” — central to republican ideology

  • democracy depends on unselfish commitment of each citizen to the public good

• women are responsible for cultivating civic virtue

  • “Republican Motherhood” — women are the special keepers of the nation’s conscience

State Constitutions

• 2nd CC called for colonies to draft new constitutions

• some merely re-touched their colonial charters

• but MA had a special convention to draft it

  • sent it out, ppl could vote on it → the ppl ratified it

  • could only be changed by another constitutional convention

  • this process will be imitated in drafting and ratifying the federal constitution

• common elements

  • government drew authority from the people (popular sovereignty)

  • written (unlike England’s)

  • represented fundamental law

  • Bill of rights

  • voting based on property and religion (different requirements in different states)

  • frequent elections (annual)

  • reduced powers of governor, judges (intentionally weak executive + judicial (?) branches)

  • separation of church and state (not CT, NH, MA → New England, Congregational Church)

Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union

• they create a confederation

• they create a federal later

  • power is SHARED btwn a central govt and several regional govts

  • vs England that had a unitary

    • all power is in ONE location

    • have the power to give or take away any regional power

  • vs confederation

    • all power lies with the members (states in this case)

      • this is why the A of C are weak

• submitted by John Dickinson, July 12, 1776

  • accepted by Congress 1777

  • final adoption by states 1781 (bc of Maryland)

• created a league of free and independent states (USA)

• Congress consisted of 2-7 delegates from each state (1 vote per state) (VA hates this, RI likes this)

• each state had to accept the plan before it could take effect

• Maryland was the last to adopt — argued over western land (VA took a lot of that land)

  • wanted land west of Appalachian Mts. to be turned over to the central government bc the states claiming the land would be more powerful (the states agreed to give the land to central govt)

• powers of Confederation Congress:

  • create post offices

  • borrow and coin money

  • direct affairs w/Indians

  • declare war, make peace

  • build and equip a navy

  • ask states to provide men and money for army

  • the national govt DOESN’T have the power to tax (bc they wanted to be as different from England as possible), states can do this

• weaknesses of Confederation Congress

  • changes require all 13 states (unanimity impossible)

  • no executive to enforce laws (they don’t want the president to be like the king)

  • no Supreme Court to protect rights

  • no power to tax

  • no regulation of foreign trade (American markets were flooded w/manufactured goods at low prices)

  • no regulation of interstate trade (states taxed each other)

    • they treated each other like foreign countries

    • had conflicting tariffs + navigation (?)

    • the only thing they really had in common was that they were colonies of GB

  • lack of military power bc of lack of money

  • control of trade IS THE BIG weakness

Land Ordinance, 1785

• acreage of Old NW should be sold + proceeds should be used to pay off national debt

• how to settle the land

• land was surveyed and divided into townships, 6 miles square

  • further divided into 36 sections, 1 mile square (640 acres)

• sections were sold at minimum of $1/acre ($640)

• minimum sale of 640 acres favored speculators

  • they buy a bunch of land, break it apart and make a bunch of profit

• no land sold on credit

• 16th section sold for education

  • doesn’t mean that schools have to be built but that the money gained by selling that land had to go to education

• four sections reserved for US

Northwest Ordinance, 1787

• govt for the new land (old NW)

• NW - land bound by Ohio River, Great Lakes, and MS River

• territory to be carved into no fewer than 3, not-more-than 5 states (become 5 states)

• three stages of govt for territory

  • ruled by governor and 3 judges appointed by Congress

  • population of 60,000 — draft a constitution, apply for statehood

• encouragement of education

• prohibited slavery (but exempted slaves already present)

• this framework was used for future states to enter the Union

Foreign Relations Problems

• Britain

  • refused to make a commercial treaty (didn’t like stab in the back)

  • closed West Indian trade to US

  • agents were very active along the northern frontier (aiding Indians)

    • so that they were a barrier against future American attack on Canada

• Spain

  • openly unfriendly (though recently were an enemy of Britain)

  • controlled mouth of MS River (closed to American commerce in 1784)

    • which was an easy way to get around (so really detrimental to them)

  • claimed large area north of Gulf of Mexico (granted to US by British in 1783)

  • encouraged Indians to violence against Americans

    • along w/Britain, prevented America from exercising effective control over half of total territory

• France

  • cool after revenge on Britain

  • demanded repayment of money loaned during war

  • restricted trade w/West Indies

• pirates (North Africa)

  • ravaging America’s Mediterranean commerce

    • under the British, the colonists had protection from them bc they purchased it

    • but America is too weak to fight and too poor to bribe as an independent nation

Threats of Civil Disorder

• farmers were unable to pay taxes and mortgages due to

  • closing of some British markets

  • new taxes on land

• they asked for relief from legislatures, but denied

• in MA, farmers banded together and were led by Daniel Shays in 1786 — tried to seize the arsenal at Springfield but failed due to MA militia

Annapolis Convention

• 1786

• called to discuss control of commerce

• 5 states attended — worthless

• Alexander Hamilton (NY) called for a convention to meet in PA in 1787 to strengthen the A of C

• Congress reluctantly called for this convention (didn’t know if it was gonna be good or bad)

  • “for the sole and express purpose of revising” the A of C

(Constitutional) Convention

• May 25, 1787 — September 17, 1787

• 55 delegates met from 12 states (RI)

• sessions were in complete secrecy bc they weren’t supposed to be doing what they were doing

• high caliber of delegates (Jefferson called them “demigods”) (most were lawyers)

• Chairman: George Washington (unanimous)

• Franklin, 81, elder statesman

• James Madison, 36, “Father of the Constitution”

  • he didn’t actually write it, but he was the most prepared

• Alexander Hamilton, 32, super-powerful central govt

• Who wasn’t there?

  • the most fiery revolutionary leaders of 1776 - Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Thomas Paine, Samuel Adams, John Hancock, Patrick Henry

  • Patrick Henry “smelt a rat;” he didn’t go bc he didn’t want to be a part of strengthening the national govt

• goal: to give the central authority genuine power so the US could wrest satisfactory commercial treaties from foreign nations

• motives

  • preserve union

  • forestall anarchy

  • ensure security of life and property against dangerous uprisings

  • sought to curb unrestrained democracy rampant in states (Shays’ Rebellion)

• areas of agreement

  • strong, yet limited central govt

  • govt in which no one group dominates (North, South, rich, poor)

  • sovereign in hands of people

  • separation of power — executive, legislative, judicial

  • powers to tax, raise an army, control commerce

(Constitutional) Convention - Compromises

• Great Compromise — Connecticut Compromise (Representation)

  • Virginia Plan: population of each state to determine representation in Congress, bicameral (which sounded pretty radical to people there)

  • New Jersey Plan: each state to have equal representation, unicameral

  • Side note: Alexander Hamilton presents central govt like England’s and this does not make Virginia seem so radical anymore

  • Compromise: Bicameral Legislature

    • Senate — equal representation (selected by state legislature → indirect election)

    • House of Representatives — representation based on population (direct popular election)

• Three-Fifths Compromise

  • North wanted to count slaves for taxation, not representation

  • South wanted to count slaves for representation, not taxation

  • Compromise: count 3/5 of slave population for both purposes (this has nothing to do w/humanity)

• Commerce Compromise

  • North wanted Congress to have control over interstate and foreign commerce

  • South feared tariff laws would be unfavorable to their interests (taxes on imports protect manufacturers, farmers hate this)

  • Compromise:

    • Congress could regulate foreign and interstate commerce, including tariffs on imports but not on exports

    • Until 1808, Congress could not forbid the importation of slaves (they got rid of it the second they could)

• executive to be elected for 4-year term by electoral college

• Supreme Court and lower courts to be established w/judges appointed for life (unless impeached)

(Constitutional) Convention - Ratification

• required 9 of 13 states (RI was prob not gonna accept (unanimity impossible))

• Federalists favored ratification (GW + Ben F)

  • they controlled the press, were wealthier, more educated, better organized

• Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution

  • many followers, poor classes

  • states had to give up too much power

  • lacked a bill of rights

  • Constitution had been written by well-to-do who had exceeded their powers

• Delaware was the first state — Dec 7, 1787

• New Hampshire was #9 — June 21, 1788

  • Constitution became official, govt began March 4, 1789

• NY and VA follow after much debate (VA couldn’t survive as an independent state)

• Federalist essays defending the Constitution — Hamilton, Madison, Jay

  • designed as propaganda, most penetrating commentary ever written on Constitution

• NC — Nov 21, 1789 (after Bill of Rights was proposed)

• RI — May 29, 1790 (after an economic boycott was threatened)

  • these are two of the most individual centers of colonial era

Fundamental Principles of Constitution

• Popular Sovereignty

  • “We, the people”

• Federalism

  • national govt supreme to state

• Separation of Powers

  • executive, legislative, judicial

• Checks and balances

  • make sure that they are equal

THE US CONSTITUTION

• Articles:

  • Article 1: legislative branch

    • section 8: powers of Congress

      • clause 3: commerce clause

      • clause 18: necessary and proper clause

  • Article 2: executive branch

  • Article 3: judicial branch

  • Article 4: relationship btwn states

    • section 1: full faith and credit clause

  • Article 5: amendment process

    • 2 methods to propose an amendment:

      • 2/3 of Congress OR 2/3 of states call a national convention

    • 2 methods to ratify an amendment:

      • ¾ of state legislatures OR ¾ of state convention

  • Article 6: supremacy clause

  • Article 7: ratification process of the Constitution

• Amendments:

• 1: freedom of religion, speech, press, assemble, petition

• 2: the right to bear arms

• 3: no quartering of troops

• 4: protects against unreasonable searches + seizures

• 5: due process clause (govt has to act fairly)

• 6: speedy and public trial by jury (criminal case)

• 7: trial by jury in civil cases

• 8: protects against cruel + unusual punishments and excessive fines or bail

• 9: people retain other rights that are not listed

• 10: states keep any power not reserved for national govt

Chapter 9: Launching the New Ship of State

Washington’s Administration

• he was elected unanimously by Electoral College in 1789 (oath on April 30, now on March 4th)

• capital: NYC

• he established the Cabinet (creates depts within the executive branch)

  • Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson (foreign affairs)

  • Secretary of Treasury: Alexander Hamilton (money)

  • Secretary of War: Henry Knox (war)

Judiciary Act of 1789

• organized the Supreme Court

  • chief justice: John Jay

  • 5 associate Justices

• created lower federal courts

  • district

    • has jury

  • circuit

    • if you don’t like the decision that they make in this court, then go to district, if don’t like that one either then go to supreme (you can start at the Supreme Court if the case affects ambassador, other public ministers, American consuls, or when the state itself is a party)

• created office of Attorney General (Edmond Randolph)

Bill of Rights

• Constitution ratified w/understanding that it would be amended to provide guarantees of individual rights

• Madison drafted the amendments bc of fear that the new convention might unravel narrow federalist victory in the ratification struggle

• proposed in 1789 — 10 amendments were ratified in 1791

• danger in this is that every single right is SPECIFICALLY listed, so what would happen if there isn’t a right on there?

• Federalists didn’t think this was needed bc the Constitution specifically listed all the things that the govt could do (everything else was the states)

Hamilton’s Financial Plan

• Bolster National credit to borrow + trade w/other countries

  • Congress assumes debts incurred by states during Revolutionary War

    • What is Hamilton’s goal here? He needed public confidence in govt to secure the funds to shape policies in administration to favor wealthier groups

    • Why didn’t Virginia like it? Bc they didn’t have as much debt as MA

    • Compromise? Virginia gets the federal district on the Potomac (the capital is moved to the South)

• How to pay off debt?

  • Customs duties

  • Excise tax (on whiskey)

• Bank of US

  • private institution w/govt being major stockholder

  • Federal Treasury deposits surplus monies

  • federal funds (in circulation) would stimulate business

  • print paper money (stable national currency)

• Washington asked for advice on this…

  • Jefferson: AGAINST the bank (he was convinced that any power not specifically granted to central govt was only for states)

    • 10th amendment (states, not Congress, had the power to charter banks)

    • strict construction (literal interpretation of Constitution)

  • Hamilton: FOR the bank

    • necessary and proper clause (Congress may pass any laws “necessary and proper”

    • loose construction (broad interpretation of Constitution)

    • Implied Powers (if the power isn’t denied, then it’s implied)

  • Hamilton prevailed: Washington signed BUS into law

    • support: commercial and financial centers, North

    • opposition: agricultural South

• Bank of US

  • chartered in 1791

  • 20-year charter

    • these two important

  • PA

  • 1/5 owned by federal govt

Whiskey Rebellion

• SW PN

• excise tax on whiskey distilled in US to raise revenue (hits hard on farmers)

• fell on frontiersman bc they manufactured whiskey (cheaper to transport barrels of whiskey than bushels of corn)

• distillers tarred and feathered revenue officers — collections stopped

• Washington summoned state militias — commanded respect after they won

  • he enforces law - proves that his govt is more powerful than the govt under A of C

Foreign Policy

• France

  • French Revolution — should US support it?

  • 1793 - new republic in France, in war w/England

    • should US honor the Franco-American Alliance of 1778?

    • Jefferson? Jeffersonians wanted to honor it bc the French Revolution is liberal, also wanted to enter conflict against Britain

    • Hamilton? Says not enough resources (really he loves England)

    • Washington decision: w/Hamilton on this, believed that war should be avoided at all costs bc nation is militarily feeble, economically wobbly, politically disunited (issued Proclamation of Neutrality)

• Britain

  • retained a chain of northern frontier posts on US soil (in defiance of the peace treaty of 1783 bc assumed that the US would help France)

    • sold guns to Indians (helped to build an Indian buffer state to contain Americans)

      • helped Little Turtle defeat Americans at Wabash

  • seized American merchant ships and impressed sailors (into service on British vessels, basically enslaving them)

  • Washington sent John Jay (he loves England) to London, 1794 to avert war

    • Jay’s Treaty

      • British agreed to evacuate NW Territory

      • American shippers to receive compensation (they’re the only ones that get something out of this, Jeffersonians don’t like this)

      • Limited trade w/British West Indies

      • US bound to pay pre-Revolutionary War debt

    • Why do Democratic Republicans hate this? Seemed like surrender to Britain, also southern planters have to pay most bc of Federalist shippers collecting damages for recent British seizures

• Spain

  • wants US to remain neutral

  • Pinckney’s Treaty (1795)

    • Spain granted Americans everything they wanted

    • 30 degree parallel boundary btwn Georgia + Florida

    • Spain agreed to stop aiding Indians

    • US received right of deposit at New Orleans and free navigation of MS River

Washington’s Farewell Address

• Hamilton wrote it

• Washington retired after 2 terms (set precedent)

• 1796

• US should avoid permanent alliances (esp entangling ones like NATO)

  • didn’t oppose all alliance, temporary alliances for extraordinary emergencies

  • Warned against political parties (which were already forming)

  • favored commercial, not political, treaties

Adams’ Administration

• France was still hostile to Jay’s Treaty

  • seized American ships

• US sent representatives to France to secure peace

  • French govt refused to meet w/envoy — were stopped by 3 men (X,Y, Z) and demanded a bribe, a loan, and a public apology from Adams

  • US refused; prepared for war

  • 2.5 years of undeclared hostilities (1798-1800)

• France was willing to negotiate once Britain loaned the US war supplies

• Convention of 1800 (treaty)

  • France agreed to end Franco-American Alliance (IMPORTANT)

  • US agreed to pay damage claims of American shippers (they just wanted to get out of this treaty)

Domestic Legislation

• Naturalization Act: 14 years as resident before citizenship (b/f it was 5)

• Alien Act: President could deport those he felt dangerous to peace and safety OR those engaged in plots against the US (unconstitutional?)

• Sedition Act: forbade citizens to speak or publish anything false or malicious against the US (fine, prison)

  • federalists wanted this

  • this is a conflict w/Constitution but the Supreme Court was dominated w/federalists

• Response: Kentucky (TJ) and Virginia Resolutions (JM)

  • Compact Theory — the States (creators of the govt) had the right to declare laws null and void if they violated the Constitution