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• How do the branches of the national government compete and cooperate in order to govern?

  • They compete through checks and balances but cooperate through lawmaking, enforcement, and judicial review.

• To what extent have changes in the powers of each branch affected how responsive and accountable the national government is in the 21st century?

  • Expanding executive power has led to faster decision-making, but also concerns over accountability. Congressional gridlock has sometimes reduced responsiveness.

Questions to Consider:

• How does the system of checks and balances work between the Executive, Legislative, and Bureaucracy?

  • Congress makes laws, the president enforces them, and courts review them. Congress can override vetoes, impeach officials, and approve appointments.

• How does the legislative branch manifest the republican ideal?

  • It represents the people through elected officials and follows a system of lawmaking.

• How are the House of Representatives and the Senate alike? How are they different?

  • Both pass laws. The House (435 members) has shorter terms (2 years) and stricter debate rules. The Senate (100 members) has longer terms (6 years) and allows filibusters.

• How does bicameralism affect the legislative process?

  • It slows down lawmaking to ensure more debate and compromise.

• Why are the rules for debate more strict and formal in the House than the Senate? Why can the Senate filibuster but the House cannot?

  • The House has more members, requiring stricter rules. The Senate has fewer members and allows unlimited debate, including filibusters.

• What is the difference between an enumerated/formal power and an implied/inherent/informal power?

  • Enumerated powers are explicitly listed in the Constitution. Implied powers come from the Necessary and Proper Clause.

• What is the Necessary and Proper Clause? How does it work?

  • It allows Congress to make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers.

• Who are the key leaders in Congress?

  • Speaker of the House, Senate Majority Leader, committee chairs, and whips.

• What role do committees play in the legislative process? What does the Ways and Means committee do? Rules committee? Finance committee?

  • Committees draft, revise, and review bills. Ways and Means handles taxes, Rules sets House debate rules, and Finance oversees Senate taxation and spending.

• What is a discharge petition?

  • It forces a bill out of committee for a floor vote if signed by a majority of House members.

• How is the budget process supposed to work? How has it worked in the last decade?

  • Congress passes a budget resolution and appropriations bills. Recently, there have been frequent delays and shutdowns.

• What is the difference between discretionary spending and mandatory spending (entitlements)?

  • Discretionary spending is optional and set yearly (e.g., defense). Mandatory spending is required by law (e.g., Social Security).

• How has increasing mandatory spending affected the budget process?

  • It reduces flexibility for new spending, leading to deficits and less control over the budget.

• What is pork-barrel legislation? Log-rolling?

  • Pork-barrel legislation funds local projects to benefit lawmakers’ districts. Log-rolling is when legislators trade votes to pass each other’s bills.

• What is divided government? How does it lead to gridlock?

  • When different parties control Congress and the presidency, it makes passing laws harder due to partisan conflicts.

• What is the difference between the trustee, delegate, and politico models?

  • Trustee: lawmakers vote based on personal judgment. Delegate: they follow constituents' wishes. Politico: they balance both approaches.

• What is gerrymandering? How have Baker v. Carr (1961) and Shaw v. Reno (1993) defined illegal gerrymandering?

  • Gerrymandering manipulates district boundaries for political advantage. Baker v. Carr allowed courts to hear redistricting cases, and Shaw v. Reno ruled racial gerrymandering unconstitutional.

• How have presidential powers been enhanced beyond constitutional powers?

  • Through executive orders, executive agreements, and military actions without congressional approval.

• What is the purpose of signing statements when the president signs a law?

  • To express how the president interprets and may enforce the law.

• What checks does the Senate have over presidential appointments (Cabinet, Ambassadors, Judges)?

  • The Senate must confirm appointments through a majority vote.

• What arguments does Federalist 70 present for a single executive?

  • A strong, unified executive ensures accountability, efficiency, and decisive leadership.

• How does the 22nd Amendment affect the presidency?

  • It limits the president to two terms.

• How has communication technology changed the role of the president? How does communication technology allow the president to use his bully pulpit?

  • It allows direct communication with the public (e.g., social media, TV), influencing public opinion and policy.

• What is the role/purpose of the bureaucracy?

  • It enforces laws, creates regulations, and manages government programs.

• The bureaucracy has discretionary authority. What does this mean?

  • Agencies have flexibility in interpreting and enforcing laws.

• What is the civil service system? Why has the bureaucracy moved more to this system?

  • Hiring is based on merit rather than political connections, reducing corruption.

• What is the Iron Triangle theory? Issue Network theory?

  • The Iron Triangle involves interactions between Congress, bureaucracies, and interest groups. Issue Networks are broader coalitions influencing policy.

• How does Congress use its oversight power with the bureaucracy?

  • Through hearings, funding control, and investigations to ensure agencies follow legislative intent.