How successful was English foreign policy in the years 1539 to 1558?

Paragraph 1: Henry VIII's Foreign Policy (1539-1547)

• Point: Henry VIII’s foreign policy was marked by military campaigns, a desire for glory, and complex alliances, though the outcomes were mixed, as his ambitions often exceeded his resources.

• Evidence: Henry’s invasion of France (1544), the capture of Boulogne, and his alliance with the Holy Roman Empire were intended to enhance England's prestige. However, the wars were financially draining, and the gains were short-lived.

• Explanation: Henry's foreign policy aimed to secure military victories and territorial gains, but England’s financial limitations and lack of lasting alliances made it difficult to achieve long-term success. While Henry achieved temporary military success, such as the capture of Boulogne, the costs of war led to strained finances and limited strategic gains.

• Historical Concept: Cause and Consequence – Henry’s aggressive policies had immediate military success but long-term financial consequences, limiting the effectiveness of his foreign policy.

Paragraph 2: Somerset’s Foreign Policy (1547-1549)

• Point: Under Somerset, English foreign policy was primarily focused on Scotland, with the aim of securing a dynastic marriage between Edward VI and Mary, Queen of Scots, but this led to costly and ultimately unsuccessful military efforts.

• Evidence: The Battle of Pinkie (1547) was a key victory, but Somerset’s efforts to maintain control over Scottish territory and enforce the marriage treaty failed. The French intervention and Mary’s marriage to the Dauphin (1548) further undermined English ambitions.

• Explanation: Somerset’s aggressive stance in Scotland, prioritizing military victories and territorial control, failed due to French intervention and logistical difficulties. The failure to secure a lasting peace with Scotland and the loss of influence in the region marked the failure of his policy.

• Historical Concept: Short-term and Long-term – The immediate military successes at Pinkie were overshadowed by the long-term failure to maintain English control in Scotland and the weakening of England's influence.

Paragraph 3: Northumberland’s Foreign Policy (1550-1553)

• Point: Northumberland’s foreign policy was focused on financial stabilization and reducing military involvement, which marked a pragmatic shift from Somerset’s aggressive approach, leading to a more cautious and less interventionist stance.

• Evidence: Northumberland ended the war with France, agreeing to return Boulogne in exchange for £133,333, which greatly relieved England’s financial burdens. His decision to abandon Scottish garrisons also helped reduce military expenditures.

• Explanation: By prioritizing financial stability over territorial expansion, Northumberland made pragmatic decisions that helped stabilize the English economy. The loss of Boulogne was a symbolic defeat, but the financial gain from the payment helped England's economy recover, showing a shift towards diplomacy and away from military overreach.

• Historical Concept: Similarity and Difference – Northumberland's policy contrasted with Somerset’s, as he focused on financial stability rather than military conquest, yet both periods were shaped by England’s limited resources.

Paragraph 4: Mary I’s Foreign Policy (1553-1558)

• Point: Mary I’s foreign policy was heavily influenced by her Catholicism and her marriage to Philip II of Spain, but it faced significant challenges, including domestic opposition and the conflict with France.

• Evidence: The marriage to Philip in 1554 aimed to secure a Catholic succession, but it was unpopular and politically complicated. Mary’s involvement in the Franco-Spanish conflict in 1557, where England fought alongside Spain, led to initial successes but ended in the humiliating loss of Calais in 1558.

• Explanation: Mary’s foreign policy aimed to strengthen Catholicism and maintain an alliance with Spain, but her diplomatic and military decisions were undermined by domestic opposition and strategic failures. The loss of Calais was a personal and symbolic blow, undermining her foreign policy achievements.

• Historical Concept: Change and Continuity – While Mary succeeded in securing a Catholic marriage and reaffirming England’s ties with Spain, her policy ultimately faced failure, continuing a pattern of ambitious foreign policies that struggled to achieve long-term success.