Untitled Flashcards Set

1. Introduction to Archaeology

What is Archaeology?

• The scientific study of the human past through material remains.

• Uses the scientific method: hypotheses are tested against empirical evidence.

• Archaeology vs. Paleontology: Archaeology focuses on human history; paleontology studies prehistoric life (e.g., dinosaurs).

Goals of Archaeology

1. Reconstruct lifeways: Describe what, when, where, and how past peoples lived.

2. Explain cultural changes: Understand why societies evolved over time.

2. The Geography of Egypt & The Nile River

Egypt’s Landscape

• Mostly desert; civilization relied on the Nile River.

• Bordering regions:

  • West: Libya

  • South: Sudan

  • North: Mediterranean Sea

  • East: Red Sea, Israel/Gaza Strip

The Nile River

• World’s longest river (~6,700 km).

• Flooding (Akhet, July–October): Brought fertile soil (Black Land = Kemet).

• Key for:

  • Transportation

  • Food (fish, eels, birds)

  • Building materials (mud bricks)

  • Taxes (Nilometers measured water levels to estimate crop yields).

Challenges & Dangers

• Cataracts (rapids): Six in total, first near Aswan.

• Crocodiles & Hippos: Hippos were the #1 animal killer in ancient Egypt.

• Parasitic infections from river water.

3. Egyptian Chronology & Major Developments

Predynastic Period (Before 3100 BC)

• Buto-Ma’adi Culture (Lower Egypt): Early trade with Southwest Asia, fishing, early domestication

• Naqada Culture (Upper Egypt): Increasing social stratification, elite burials, craft production

• Initial political centers formed along the Nile

Early Dynastic Period (3100–2686 BC)

• Unification of Egypt: Narmer (Menes?) credited with unifying Upper and Lower Egypt

• Memphis founded as capital, possibly predating Narmer

• Early Writing & Bureaucracy: Scribes crucial for administration, taxation, and record-keeping

• State-Controlled Economy: Industrial-scale brewery at Abydos (2021 discovery) suggests economic centralization

• Military Organization: Local conscription, Nubian mercenaries, hierarchical command

Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC)

• Age of Pyramids (Dynasty 4): Development of large-scale pyramid construction

• Pharaoh’s Divine Status: King seen as god on earth, intermediary between gods and people

• Bureaucratic Expansion: Nomarchs (provincial governors) initially appointed, later became hereditary

• Economic & Agricultural System: Taxation based on flood levels, corvée labor required

• Decline Factors:

  • Financial strain from pyramid projects

  • Increasing power of local rulers

  • Possible climate change (evidence of famine and starvation)

First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC)

• Political Fragmentation: No central authority; regional rulers (Memphis vs. Thebes)

• Rise of Local Power: Herakleopolis kings (Dynasties 9–10) vs. Theban rulers (Dynasty 11)

• Mentuhotep II (Thebes) reunifies Egypt, establishes Middle Kingdom

Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 BC)

• Political Stability & Expansion:

  • Mentuhotep II strengthens central control, reduces nomarch power

  • Capital moved to Itjtawy (near Faiyum) under Amenemhat I

  • Aggressive Nubian campaigns (Buhen fortress established as southern boundary)

• Economic & Agricultural Advancements:

  • Large-scale irrigation projects (Faiyum)

  • Trade with the Near East increases

• Cultural Developments:

  • Osiris Cult Growth: Commoners gain access to the afterlife by obeying laws and honoring the king

  • Literature Flourishes: Story of Sinuhe, Instructions of Amenemhat

  • Statues of Pharaohs: More individualized representation (Senusret II)

Second Intermediate Period (1650–1550 BC)

• Rise of the Hyksos (Dynasty 15):

  • Foreign rulers from the Levant take control of Lower Egypt

  • Introduce chariots, composite bows, and bronze weaponry

  • Maintain Mediterranean trade networks

• Kushite Influence (Nubia):

  • Capital at Kerma, becomes a major power

  • Trade agreements with Hyksos

  • Fortresses built along the Nile for control

• Theban Resistance (Dynasty 17):

  • Khamose & Ahmose lead wars against Hyksos

  • Ahmose expels Hyksos, reunites Egypt, and starts the New Kingdom

New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC)

• Egypt’s Golden Age: Military expansion, wealth, and monumental construction

• Introduction of standing army and expansion into Nubia and the Levant

• Development of Valley of the Kings as burial site for pharaohs

4. Key Figures & Rulers

• Narmer (Early Dynastic): First unifier of Egypt, established Memphis

• Djoser (Old Kingdom): Step Pyramid at Saqqara, first large-scale stone structure

• Khufu (Old Kingdom): Builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza

• Mentuhotep II (Middle Kingdom): Reunited Egypt, expanded government control

• Senusret III (Middle Kingdom): Strengthened military, built forts along the Nile

• Ahmose I (New Kingdom): Expelled Hyksos, started 18th Dynasty

• Hatshepsut (New Kingdom): Expanded trade, major building projects

• Thutmose III (New Kingdom): Egypt’s greatest military strategist, expanded empire

• Akhenaten (New Kingdom): Introduced monotheistic Aten worship, moved capital to Amarna

• Tutankhamun (New Kingdom): Restored old gods, famous for his intact tomb

• Ramesses II (New Kingdom): Major builder, signed first known peace treaty (Battle of Kadesh)