The End of Spanish Dominance

Decline of Spanish Influence:

• France's Civil War: Engaged in internal conflicts, lacked the resources for overseas expansion.

• Portuguese Succession Crisis (1580): The death of the Portuguese king led to the unification of Portugal and Spain under the Spanish crown for the next 60 years, weakening Portuguese colonial efforts.

• Rise of New Competitors: With Spain and Portugal distracted, England and the Dutch Republic emerged as new colonial powers after defeating Spain in various European conflicts.

The Making of the Dutch Republic:

• Habsburg Control: The Low Countries, under Habsburg rule, included parts of modern Spain, Portugal, and Italy. These were not merely colonies but significant economic centers, with Amsterdam emerging as a major banking hub.

• Margaret of Parma: Governed the Netherlands, aiming to centralize control and reduce the autonomy of the towns.

• William of Orange (William the Silent): Led the Dutch independence movement as a staunch Protestant and opponent of the Spanish Habsburgs.

• Duke of Alba: Appointed by the Spanish king to suppress Dutch unrest, his harsh tactics ultimately led to the formal division of the Netherlands into a Northern Protestant independent region and a Southern Catholic region remaining under Spanish control.

• Dutch Government Structure: The Netherlands became a republic, a coalition of provinces with Amsterdam as a dominant power. Governed as an oligarchy through the States General, it provided more autonomy compared to traditional monarchies.

• Stadholder Role: A military leader who played a symbolic role similar to a monarch, traditionally from the House of Orange.

Dutch Overseas Expansion:

• VOC (Dutch East India Company): Aimed to dominate Asian trade and compete directly against Spanish interests.

• WIC (Dutch West India Company): Focused on Atlantic trade, including the Americas.

• Henry Hudson: His explorations under the Dutch flag led to claims in the New World, including areas around modern New York (New Amsterdam).

• Colonial Ventures: Dutch colonies like Curacao served as strategic waypoints rather than plantation economies. Dutch Brazil focused on sugar production but was notorious for harsh conditions for enslaved Africans.

Elizabethan England's Global Ambitions:

• Monarchical Changes Influencing Religion: From Henry VII’s break with Rome to initiate the Protestant Reformation, followed by a brief return to Catholicism under Mary I, and a strong Protestant establishment under Elizabeth I.

• Elizabeth I's Reign (1558-1603): Marked by stability and the establishment of the Church of England, blending elements of Protestantism and Catholicism.

• Spanish Armada (1588): England's naval victory against Spain, assisted by the Dutch, significantly weakened Spanish maritime supremacy and bolstered England's global standing.

Beginnings of English Colonization:

• Privateering: English privateers, legally sanctioned by the monarchy (via letters of marque), targeted Spanish treasure fleets to disrupt Spain's economic base.

• Prominent Figures: Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh, celebrated for their successful privateering against Spain.

Early Colonization Efforts: Establishments like Roanoke faced difficulties and were short-lived, while Jamestown laid the foundations for future English colonization in North America, promoting self-governance and land ownership.