Untitled Flashcards Set

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Psychologists

Professionals who study mental processes, behaviors, and their underlying biological, social, and psychological factors.

Approaches to Psychology

1. Evolutionary: Focuses on how natural selection of traits promotes the survival of genes and influences behavior.

2. Neurobiological: Examines the relationship between biology (brain, hormones, neurotransmitters) and behavior.

3. Sociocultural: Explores how culture, society, and environment shape behaviors and attitudes.

4. Behavior Genetics: Investigates the role of genetics and environment on individual differences in behavior.

5. Psychoanalytic: Founded by Freud; emphasizes unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts.

6. Humanistic: Highlights human growth, self-actualization, free will, and personal fulfillment (e.g., Maslow, Rogers).

7. Behavioral: Studies observable behaviors and the processes of learning (e.g., reinforcement and conditioning).

8. Cognitive: Focuses on how people perceive, think, remember, and solve problems.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors to explain behavior and mental processes.

Biased Thinking vs. Critical Thinking

• Biased Thinking: Automatic judgments influenced by personal biases, assumptions, or prior experiences.

• Critical Thinking: The active and objective analysis of information, evidence, and reasoning to form conclusions.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, or recall information that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon where people believe, after an event, that they predicted it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate our knowledge, skills, or accuracy of predictions.

Scientific Method

A systematic, objective approach to research that includes observation, forming hypotheses, testing, and analyzing results.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis that can be proven false through observation or experimentation.

Operational Definitions

Specific definitions of variables that allow for measurable and replicable observations in research.

Replication

Repeating a study’s methods with new participants to verify findings.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population to participate in research.

Population

The entire group of individuals a researcher wishes to study.

Random Sampling

A method where each individual in a population has an equal chance of being chosen for the sample.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants who are easily accessible but not randomly chosen.

Sampling Bias

Occurs when the sample does not accurately represent the population, leading to skewed results.

Size of Sample and Statistical Significance

Larger sample sizes generally yield more reliable results and increase the likelihood that findings are statistically significant (not due to chance).

Qualitative Research

Research that collects non-numerical data, often through methods like interviews or observations.

Quantitative Research

Research that collects numerical data, often analyzed using statistical methods (e.g., Likert Scales).

Peer Review

The evaluation of scientific research by experts in the field before publication to ensure validity and quality.

Generalization of Findings

The extent to which results from a sample can be applied to the broader population.

Non-Experimental Research vs. Experimental Research

• Non-Experimental: Observes variables without manipulating them (e.g., surveys, case studies).

• Experimental: Manipulates variables to test cause-and-effect relationships.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or small group to understand specific phenomena.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without intervention.

Survey

A method of gathering information from a large group using questionnaires.

Wording Effects

The way questions are worded in a survey can influence responses.

Self-Report Bias

Participants may provide inaccurate or incomplete answers about themselves.

Social Desirability Bias

Participants may respond in ways they believe are socially acceptable or favorable.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies to identify overall trends.

Correlation

The measure of the relationship between two variables.

• Correlation Coefficient: A statistical index (ranging from -1 to +1) that indicates the strength and direction of a correlation.

• Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.

• Strength/Weakness of Correlation: Closer to +1/-1 = strong; closer to 0 = weak.

• Illusory Correlation: Perceiving a relationship where none exists.

• Scatterplot: A graph that shows the relationship between two variables.

• Correlation DOES NOT Equal Causation: Correlation does not prove that one variable causes changes in another.

The Third Variable Problem

When a third, unaccounted-for variable influences the observed correlation between two variables.

Experiment

The only research method that tests cause-and-effect relationships.

• Control Group: The group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

• Placebo: An inactive substance or condition.

• Placebo Effect: Participants’ belief in the treatment leads to perceived improvement.

• Experimental Group: The group that receives the treatment.

• Random Assignment: Randomly assigning participants to groups to minimize bias.

• Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated.

• Dependent Variable: The outcome variable being measured.

• Confounding Variables: Factors other than the independent variable that may affect results.

Single-Blind vs. Double-Blind Studies

• Single-Blind: Participants don’t know if they are in the experimental or control group.

• Double-Blind: Both researchers and participants are unaware of group assignments to prevent bias.

Experimenter Bias

Unintentional influence of researchers on the outcome of a study.

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean: The average.

• Median: The middle value in a dataset.

• Mode: The most frequently occurring value.

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that a result is not due to chance (typically p < .05).

Human Ethical Research Standards

1. Informed Consent: Participants must agree to participate with full knowledge of the study’s purpose.

2. Protection from Harm: Researchers must ensure participants are not harmed physically or psychologically.

3. Confidentiality: Participant information must remain private.

4. Deception/Confederates: Deception must be justified and disclosed during debriefing.

5. Debriefing: Explaining the study’s purpose and findings to participants afterward.

Animal Research Ethical Standards

Guidelines to ensure humane treatment, such as minimizing discomfort and ensuring ethical necessity.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews and approves research studies to ensure ethical standards are met.

Here is a comprehensive definition guide for the terms you’ve listed:

Evolutionary Psychology

A psychological perspective that explains human behaviors and mental processes as adaptations shaped by natural selection to solve problems faced by our ancestors.

Neurobiological Model

A framework that links behavior and cognition to biological processes, particularly the brain, nervous system, and neurotransmitters.

Nature vs. Nurture Question

The debate about whether behavior and mental processes are determined primarily by genetics (nature) or environment and experience (nurture).

Behavioral Genetics

The study of how genes and environment interact to influence individual differences in behavior.

Biopsychologists

Researchers who study how biology (e.g., brain, nervous system, hormones) influences behavior and mental processes.

Neuropsychologists

Specialists who study the relationship between brain function and behavior, often assessing brain injuries or neurological disorders.

Nature

Biological and genetic influences on behavior and traits.

Genes

Units of heredity that carry instructions for biological traits and processes.

Nurture

Environmental influences, including upbringing, culture, and experiences, that shape behavior and mental processes.

Environment

External factors, such as family, culture, education, and physical surroundings, that affect development.

Natural Selection

The process where traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population over generations.

Twin Studies

Research comparing identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to determine the role of genes and environment in behavior.

Family Studies

Research examining similarities in behavior or traits among family members to assess genetic influences.

Adoption Studies

Research that compares adopted children to their biological and adoptive families to understand genetic vs. environmental effects.

Eugenics

A now-discredited movement that sought to improve human populations by controlling breeding to “enhance” genetic traits.

Chemical Messengers

Substances like hormones and neurotransmitters that transmit signals to regulate behavior and bodily functions.

Hormones vs. Neurotransmitters

• Hormones: Chemical messengers released by glands into the bloodstream, affecting distant organs.

• Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons across synapses.

Hormones

• Adrenaline: Increases arousal, heart rate, and energy during fight-or-flight responses.

• Oxytocin: Promotes bonding, trust, and social behavior.

• Melatonin: Regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Endocrine System

A system of glands that produce and release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions.

Neurotransmitters

• Dopamine: Regulates pleasure, reward, and motor control (linked to Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia).

• Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite (low levels are linked to depression).

• Norepinephrine: Involved in alertness, arousal, and stress responses.

• GABA: An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces brain activity (calming effect).

• Acetylcholine: Involved in memory, learning, and muscle contraction (linked to Alzheimer’s disease).

• Glutamate: An excitatory neurotransmitter critical for learning and memory.

• Endorphins: Natural painkillers that also produce feelings of pleasure.

• Substance P: Involved in transmitting pain signals.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters (Agonists)

Neurotransmitters that stimulate or activate neural activity.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters (Antagonists)

Neurotransmitters that suppress or reduce neural activity.

Neurons

Specialized cells that transmit information within the nervous system.

• Glial Cells: Support and nourish neurons.

• Sensory Neurons (Afferent): Carry information from sensory organs to the central nervous system.

• Motor Neurons (Efferent): Carry commands from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

• Interneurons: Process information between sensory and motor neurons.

• Reflex Arc: An automatic, involuntary response to stimuli involving sensory and motor neurons.

Parts of a Neuron

• Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.

• Cell Body: Contains the nucleus and processes information.

• Nucleus: Controls the neuron’s activities.

• Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body.

• Myelin Sheath: Fatty layer that speeds up neural impulses; its degradation leads to multiple sclerosis.

• Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate rapid signal transmission.

• Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.

• Synapse: The gap between neurons where neurotransmitter communication occurs.

Neural Networks

Groups of interconnected neurons that process and transmit information.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change and reorganize neural pathways in response to experience, learning, or injury.

Neural Transmission (Action Potential)

The electrical impulse that travels along a neuron.

• Resting Potential: Neuron at rest with a negative charge inside.

• All or Nothing Principle: A neuron either fires completely or not at all.

• Depolarization: The neuron’s charge becomes positive as ions flow in.

• Threshold: The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential.

• Reuptake: The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the releasing neuron.

• Refractory Period: A short period after firing when the neuron cannot fire again.

Brain Parts and Functions

Brain Stem

• Medulla: Controls basic life functions like heartbeat and breathing.

• Reticular Activating System: Regulates alertness and arousal.

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movement, balance, and motor learning.

Limbic System

• Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cortex.

• Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormones.

• Pituitary Gland: “Master gland” of the endocrine system.

• Hippocampus: Involved in memory formation.

• Amygdala: Processes emotions, especially fear and aggression.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for complex thought, perception, and voluntary movements.

Lobes of the Brain

• Frontal:

• Prefrontal Cortex: Planning, decision-making, and personality.

• Broca’s Area: Speech production.

• Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movements.

• Aphasia: Language impairment.

• Parietal: Processes touch, spatial awareness.

• Sensory Cortex: Processes sensory input.

• Temporal:

• Auditory Cortex: Processes sound.

• Wernicke’s Area: Language comprehension.

• Occipital: Processes visual information.

• Visual Cortex: Interprets visual stimuli.

Corpus Callosum

A bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres.

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.

Hemispheres of the Brain

• Right Functions: Creativity, spatial ability, intuition.

• Left Functions: Logic, language, analysis.

Split Brain Research

Studies on individuals with severed corpus callosums (e.g., epilepsy patients) to understand lateralization.

Nervous System

• Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral Nervous System:

• Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements.

• Reflex Arc: Involuntary response to stimuli.

• Myasthenia Gravis: A neuromuscular disorder causing weakness.

• Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions.

• Sympathetic: Activates fight-or-flight response.

• Parasympathetic: Restores body to calm state.

Brain Scans

• EEG (Electroencephalogram): Measures electrical activity in the brain.

• fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

Here is a detailed explanation of the listed terms:

Psychoanalytic Perspective

A psychological approach developed by Freud that emphasizes the influence of unconscious thoughts, desires, and early childhood experiences on behavior.

Cognitive Neuroscience

An interdisciplinary field studying the relationship between brain function, cognition, and behavior, often using brain-imaging technologies.

Consciousness

The awareness of oneself and the environment, encompassing thoughts, perceptions, and experiences.

Levels of Consciousness

• Conscious: Thoughts and perceptions we are aware of.

• Subconscious: Information just below the conscious level, accessible with effort (e.g., memories).

• Unconscious: Deep mental processes and desires not directly accessible, influencing behavior and emotions (Freud).

Dual Processing

The principle that information is processed simultaneously on two levels:

• Conscious (Explicit): Deliberate, controlled thought processes.

• Unconscious (Implicit): Automatic, intuitive processes.

Parallel Processing

Processing multiple aspects of information simultaneously (e.g., visual and auditory).

Sequential Processing

Processing information step-by-step, often when solving complex problems or learning new tasks.

Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.

Circadian Rhythm

The body’s internal biological clock regulating sleep-wake cycles, energy levels, and other physiological processes over a 24-hour period.

• Jet Lag: Disruption of circadian rhythm due to rapid time-zone travel.

• Shift Work: Disruption caused by irregular work hours or night shifts.

EEG Waves & Types of Sleep

• Alpha Waves: Relaxed, awake state.

• Theta Waves: Early stages of sleep.

• Delta Waves: Deep sleep stages, associated with restorative processes.

Human Sleep Cycle

A typical sleep cycle lasts ~90 minutes, progressing through NREM and REM stages.

NREM Sleep

Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep, divided into stages:

• N1 (Light Sleep):

• Hypnagogic sensations (e.g., falling).

• N2:

• Most time spent here.

• Characterized by sleep spindles (bursts of brain activity).

• N3 (Deep Sleep):

• Growth hormone released.

• Memory formation does not occur.

Sleep Need by Age

The amount of sleep required varies with age: infants need ~14-17 hours, teens ~8-10 hours, and adults ~7-9 hours.

REM Sleep

• Paradoxical Sleep: The brain is active, but the body is largely immobile.

• REM Deprivation: Leads to cognitive impairment and irritability.

• REM Rebound: Increased REM sleep following deprivation.

Sleep Cycle

• Deep Sleep Early: Occurs in the first half of the night.

• REM Sleep Later: Occurs more frequently in the second half of the night.

Dream Theories

• Memory Consolidation: Dreams help process and consolidate memories.

• Activation-Synthesis: Dreams result from random brain activity, which the brain interprets as coherent narratives.

Why We Sleep

• Memory Consolidation: Sleep strengthens memory and learning.

• Restoration: The body repairs tissues and clears waste products in the brain.

Sleep Deprivation

• Causes: Stress, poor sleep habits, work demands, etc.

• Effects:

• Increased risk of obesity (affects hormones like ghrelin and leptin).

• Weakened immune system and slower recovery.

• Poor cognitive performance, mood changes.

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

• Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks during the day.

• REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Acting out dreams due to lack of muscle paralysis in REM sleep.

• Sleep Apnea: Interrupted breathing during sleep, causing frequent awakenings.

• Somnambulism: Sleepwalking, typically occurring in deep NREM sleep.

Good Sleep Hygiene

Practices that promote restful sleep, such as consistent sleep schedules, limiting screen time, and creating a cool, dark environment.

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that alter perception, mood, and consciousness.

How Drugs Change Consciousness

• Stimulants: Increase arousal and energy (e.g., caffeine, cocaine, nicotine).

• Depressants: Slow nervous system activity (e.g., alcohol).

• Hallucinogens: Distort perceptions and evoke sensory images (e.g., marijuana, LSD).

• Opioids: Pain-relieving drugs that mimic endorphins (e.g., heroin).

• Long-term use stops natural endorphin production.

Dependence

A state in which the body or mind requires a drug to function normally.

Addiction

Compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences, often driven by physical or psychological dependence.

Withdrawal

Unpleasant physical or psychological symptoms experienced when reducing or stopping drug use.

Tolerance

The need for increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the same effect due to repeated use.

Here is a detailed breakdown of these concepts:

Attribution Theories

Explain how individuals infer the causes of behavior:

• Personal (Internal): Behavior is attributed to internal traits or abilities (e.g., effort, personality).

• Situational (External): Behavior is attributed to external circumstances or the environment.

Explanatory Styles

Patterns of how individuals explain events in their lives:

• Optimistic: Attributing negative outcomes to external, temporary, and specific causes (e.g., “It was bad luck this time”).

• Pessimistic: Attributing negative outcomes to internal, stable, and global causes (e.g., “I always fail because I’m not good enough”).

Locus of Control

Belief about control over events:

• Internal: The belief that outcomes depend on one’s effort or actions.

• External: The belief that outcomes are determined by external forces like luck or fate.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When one’s expectations influence their behavior in ways that make the expectation come true.

Social Comparison

The process of evaluating oneself in relation to others:

• Upward Comparison: Comparing oneself to someone better off to inspire improvement.

• Downward Comparison: Comparing oneself to someone worse off to feel better about one’s situation.

Relative Deprivation

A sense of being deprived relative to others, often leading to frustration or dissatisfaction.

Attribution Biases

Errors in judging the causes of behavior:

• Actor/Observer Bias: Attributing others’ actions to internal factors, but one’s own actions to external factors.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal causes for others’ behavior while ignoring situational factors.

• Self-Serving Bias: Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

• Cognitive Dissonance: The discomfort caused by holding conflicting attitudes or behaviors, leading to attitude change.

• Mere Exposure Effect: Increased liking of something due to repeated exposure.

• Belief Perseverance: Maintaining a belief even after it has been disproven.

• The Halo Effect: Assuming overall positive traits about someone based on one positive trait.

• False Consensus Effect: Overestimating how much others share one’s beliefs or behaviors.

Attitudes

Evaluations of objects, people, or ideas:

• Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious attitudes that influence behavior.

• Explicit Attitudes: Conscious attitudes that one can articulate.

Stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about a group of people, often oversimplified and inaccurate.

Prejudice

Unjustified negative attitudes toward a person based on their group membership.

Discrimination

Unjustified negative actions toward individuals based on their group membership.

Just World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve, leading to victim-blaming.

Ingroup Bias

Favoring one’s own group over others.

Outgroup Homogeneity Bias

Perceiving outgroup members as more similar to each other than ingroup members.

Ethnocentrism

The tendency to view one’s culture as superior and judge others by its standards.

Social Norms

Unwritten rules about acceptable behavior in a group or society.

Conformity

Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to align with group norms.

Social Influences

• Normative Social Influence: Conforming to gain social approval or avoid rejection.

• Informational Social Influence: Conforming because the group’s information is perceived as correct.

Obedience

Compliance with orders from an authority figure.

Persuasion

Techniques to change attitudes:

• Central Route: Persuasion through logical arguments and evidence.

• Peripheral Route: Persuasion through superficial cues like attractiveness or emotion.

• Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Gaining compliance with a small request first, then a larger one.

• Door-in-the-Face Technique: Starting with a large request (likely rejected) followed by a smaller one.

Group Dynamics

• Group Polarization: Group discussions strengthen group opinions or attitudes.

• Groupthink: The desire for group harmony leads to poor decision-making.

• Diffusion of Responsibility: Reduced sense of personal responsibility in a group.

• Social Loafing: Individuals exert less effort in a group than when working alone.

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations (e.g., crowds).

• Social Facilitation: Improved performance on simple tasks when others are watching.

Altruism

Unselfish behavior to help others, often at personal cost.

Social Exchange Theory

The idea that social behavior is based on maximizing benefits and minimizing costs.

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation that people will help those in need without expecting anything in return.

Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will help others who have helped them.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help when others are present:

• Situational Variables: Factors like group size or ambiguity of the situation.

• Attentional Variables: Whether individuals notice the event and perceive it as requiring intervention.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation between groups to achieve, reducing conflict.

Social Traps

Situations where individuals or groups pursue self-interest, leading to mutually harmful outcomes (e.g., overusing shared resources).

Industrial-Organizational Psychologists

Psychologists who apply psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity, satisfaction, and employee well-being.

Here’s a detailed explanation of these concepts:

Sensation vs. Perception

• Sensation: The process by which sensory organs detect stimuli (e.g., light, sound) and send the information to the brain.

• Perception: The brain’s process of interpreting sensory information to give it meaning.

Nervous System

The network of nerves and cells that transmits signals between the brain, spinal cord, and the body.

Transduction

The process of converting sensory stimuli (e.g., light waves, sound waves) into neural signals that the brain can interpret.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time (e.g., the faintest sound you can hear).

Subliminal Messages

Stimuli presented below the absolute threshold that influence behavior without conscious awareness.

Just Noticeable Difference (Difference Threshold)

The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time.

Sensory Adaptation

Decreased sensitivity to a constant or unchanging stimulus over time (e.g., no longer noticing a strong perfume).

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception that begins with sensory input and moves upward to higher-level processing in the brain.

Example: Recognizing an object by its features (shape, color, etc.).

Top-Down Processing

Perception that is influenced by prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences.

• Schemas: Mental frameworks based on what we know.

• Perceptual Sets: Expectations that influence perception.

• Priming: Exposure to a stimulus influences perception of another stimulus.

• Context: Surrounding information influences perception.

• Experiences: Past experiences shape how we interpret stimuli.

• Culture: Cultural background affects perception.

The Eye and Process of Vision

• Wavelength of Light → Determines hue or color.

• Lens: Focuses light onto the retina through a process called accommodation.

• Retina: The light-sensitive layer of the eye containing:

• Photoreceptors: Detect light.

• Rods: Detect light and dark (used in peripheral vision and dim light).

• Cones: Detect color and detail, concentrated in the fovea (center of the retina).

• Ganglion Cells: Process signals from photoreceptors and send them to the brain.

• Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information to the brain.

• Blind Spot: The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye (no receptors).

• Occipital Lobe: The brain’s center for visual processing.

Nearsightedness

Distant objects are blurry because the light focuses in front of the retina.

Farsightedness

Nearby objects are blurry because the light focuses behind the retina.

Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision

The retina has three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue light.

Opponent-Process Theory

Color vision is based on opposing pairs:

• Red/Green, Blue/Yellow, and Black/White.

• Explains afterimages.

Color Vision Deficiency

• Monochromatism: No color vision.

• Dichromatism: Limited color vision (e.g., red-green color blindness).

Gestalt Principles

How the brain organizes visual stimuli:

• Closure: Filling in gaps to perceive a whole object.

• Figure-Ground: Distinguishing an object (figure) from its background.

• Proximity: Grouping nearby objects together.

• Similarity: Grouping similar objects together.

Monocular Cues (depth cues with one eye)

• Relative Clarity: Closer objects are clearer.

• Relative Size: Closer objects appear larger.

• Texture Gradient: Closer objects have more texture.

• Linear Perspective: Parallel lines converge in the distance.

• Interposition: Closer objects block farther ones.

Binocular Cues (depth cues with two eyes)

• Retinal Disparity: Differences between the images seen by each eye.

• Convergence: Eyes turning inward for closer objects.

Perceptual Constancies

The perception of objects as unchanging despite changes in appearance (e.g., size, shape, brightness).

Apparent Motion

The illusion that still images are moving (e.g., movies).

Blindsight

A condition where people can respond to visual stimuli without consciously seeing them.

Prosopagnosia

Inability to recognize faces.

Synesthesia

When one sense triggers another (e.g., hearing colors).

Hearing Basics and Process

• Air Molecules move in waves.

• Wavelength → Determines pitch.

• Amplitude → Determines volume.

Theories of Hearing

• Place Theory: Pitch is determined by where vibrations occur on the cochlea.

• Frequency Theory: Pitch is determined by the frequency of neural impulses.

• Volley Theory: Combines Place and Frequency theories for higher pitches.

Sound Localization

Identifying the location of sounds based on differences between ears.

Hearing Loss

• Conduction Hearing Loss: Damage to the ear’s structures that conduct sound.

• Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Damage to hair cells or nerves in the cochlea.

Vestibular Sense

Sense of balance, regulated by the cerebellum. Disorders can cause vertigo.

Kinesthetic Sense

Awareness of body position and movement.

Touch (Somatosensation)

The sensation of touch, pressure, heat, cold, and pain.

Pain (Nociception)

• Gate Control Theory: Pain signals are blocked or allowed through a “gate” in the spinal cord.

• Phantom Limb Sensation: Feeling sensations in a missing limb.

Chemical Senses

• Smell (Olfaction): Bypasses the thalamus; pheromones influence behavior.

• Taste (Gustation): Six tastes:

• Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami (savory), and Oleogustus (fatty).

• Sensory Interaction: Smell is required to perceive taste.

Taste Sensitivity

• Supertaster: Highly sensitive to taste.

• Medium Taster: Average taste sensitivity.

• Nontaster: Low sensitivity to taste.

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

• Cocktail Party Effect: Focusing on one voice amid many.

• Inattentional Blindness: Failing to notice visible objects when attention is elsewhere.

• Change Blindness: Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Weber’s Law

The principle that the difference threshold is a constant proportion of the original stimulus, not a fixed amount.

Here is a detailed breakdown of the memory concepts:

Types of Memory

1. Explicit Memory (Declarative): Conscious recall of information.

• Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and events (e.g., your last birthday).

• Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts (e.g., the capital of France).

2. Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative): Unconscious memories that influence behavior.

• Procedural Memory: Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).

• Conditioned Memory: Learned associations (e.g., feeling nervous before an exam).

3. Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform a task in the future (e.g., taking medication).

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A process where repeated stimulation of neurons strengthens their connections, enhancing long-term memory.

Encoding

Types of Encoding

• Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of information (e.g., time, space).

• Effortful Processing: Requires attention and conscious effort (e.g., studying).

Depth of Processing

• Shallow Processing: Superficial encoding (e.g., focus on appearance—structural processing).

• Phonemic Processing: Focus on sounds of words.

• Deep Processing: Meaningful encoding (e.g., definitions—semantic processing).

Encoding Issues

• The Spacing Effect: Information is better remembered when learning is spread out over time.

• Massed Practice: Cramming (less effective).

• Distributed Practice: Spacing out study sessions (more effective).

• Serial Position Effect: Recall is affected by position in a sequence:

• Primacy Effect: Better recall for items at the beginning.

• Recency Effect: Better recall for items at the end.

Storage

Memory retention requires:

• Use: Actively retrieving information.

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

• Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information to existing knowledge.

• Autobiographical Memories: Personal, long-term memories.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

1. Sensory Memory: Immediate, brief recording of sensory input.

• Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory (lasting ~1 second).

• Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory (lasting ~3-4 seconds).

2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds ~7 items for 20-30 seconds.

• Working Memory: Active processing and manipulation of information:

• Central Executive: Directs attention.

• Phonological Loop: Verbal and auditory information.

• Visuospatial Sketchpad: Visual and spatial information.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information indefinitely.

• Memory Consolidation: Process of stabilizing memories in LTM.

Retrieval

• Recall: Retrieving information without cues (e.g., essay questions).

• Recognition: Identifying previously learned information (e.g., multiple choice).

• Retrieval Cues: Hints that trigger memory retrieval.

• Memory Reconstruction: Rebuilding memories based on cues and existing knowledge.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one’s thought processes (e.g., assessing your own memory skills).

The Testing Effect

Testing yourself on material improves long-term retention.

Memory Reconstruction

Memory is not perfectly accurate and can be influenced by new information and bias.

Context-Dependent Memories

Retrieval is easier when the context matches the learning environment (e.g., studying in the same room as the test).

State-Dependent Memories

Retrieval is easier when your internal state (e.g., mood, intoxication) matches the learning state.

Mood-Congruent Memories

Recall is influenced by current mood (e.g., sad memories when sad).

Memory Tips

• Mnemonic Devices: Memory aids like acronyms (e.g., HOMES for Great Lakes).

• Method of Loci: Associating items with specific locations.

• Categories: Grouping related information together.

• Chunking: Breaking information into smaller, manageable parts.

• Hierarchies: Organizing information from general to specific.

Forgetting and Memory Challenges

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

Memory declines rapidly after learning but levels off over time.

Encoding Failure

Failure to store information in memory (e.g., not paying attention).

Interference

• Proactive Interference: Old information disrupts new learning.

• Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts old memories.

Inadequate Retrieval

• Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Knowing the information but being unable to recall it.

Motivated Forgetting

• Repression: Unconscious forgetting of distressing memories (Freudian concept).

Constructive Memories

Memories are reconstructed, not exact.

• Imagination Inflation: Imagining events can make them seem real.

• Misinformation Effect: Misleading information distorts memory recall.

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

An exceptional ability to recall detailed personal experiences.

Amnesias

• Infantile Amnesia: Inability to recall early childhood memories.

• Source Amnesia: Forgetting the origin of a memory.

• Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall old memories.

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.

Dementia

Progressive memory loss and cognitive decline.

• Alzheimer’s Disease: A form of dementia involving memory loss, caused by brain changes (e.g., amyloid plaques).

Here’s a detailed explanation of the Cognition concepts:

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring, understanding, storing, and using knowledge. It includes thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and memory.

Cognitive Psychology

The branch of psychology that studies how people perceive, think, remember, and solve problems.

Concept

A mental category used to group objects, events, and ideas that share similar features.

• Example: “Furniture” includes chairs, tables, and couches.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a concept that comes to mind.

• Example: A sparrow is a prototype for the concept of a “bird,” while an ostrich may not match as closely.

Schema

A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information based on past experiences and knowledge.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

• Example: Seeing a zebra and calling it a “horse” because it fits your existing knowledge.

• Accommodation: Adjusting or creating new schemas when new information doesn’t fit.

• Example: Learning that a zebra is different from a horse and updating your understanding.

Critical Thinking

The ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information objectively to form judgments or solve problems.

Executive Functions

Higher-order mental processes that include planning, decision-making, self-control, and working memory.

Convergent Thinking

A type of thinking that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem.

• Example: Answering a multiple-choice question.

Divergent Thinking

A type of thinking that generates multiple possible solutions or ideas. It’s key to creativity.

• Example: Brainstorming uses for a brick.

Creativity

The ability to produce new, original, and valuable ideas or solutions.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct solution to a problem.

• Example: Solving a math equation using a formula.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making but don’t guarantee accuracy.

• Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype.

• Example: Assuming someone wearing glasses is a librarian.

• Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind.

• Example: Believing plane crashes are common because they are widely reported.

Mental Set

The tendency to approach problems using strategies that have worked in the past, even if they’re no longer effective.

• Example: Using the same method to solve all math problems, even when a new approach might work better.

Framing

The way information is presented influences decision-making and judgments.

• Example: Saying “90% survival rate” sounds better than “10% mortality rate.”

Insight

A sudden realization or “aha moment” when the solution to a problem becomes clear.

Intuition

An immediate, automatic feeling or thought without conscious reasoning. It’s often based on past experiences.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The belief that past events affect future outcomes in random situations.

• Example: Thinking a coin toss is “due” to land on heads after five tails in a row.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing an action or decision because of prior investment, even if it’s no longer beneficial.

• Example: Finishing a bad movie just because you already paid for the ticket.

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective. It blocks creative problem-solving.

Functional Fixedness

A cognitive bias where you only see objects in their traditional use.

• Example: Not realizing a hammer can be used as a paperweight.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, or remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.

• Example: Only reading news that supports your political views.

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to a belief even after evidence has discredited it.

• Example: Continuing to believe a myth after being shown scientific evidence disproving it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge, judgments, or abilities.

• Example: Thinking you can complete a project in two days when it realistically takes a week.