Chapter 41: The Animal Body and Principles of Regulation

41.1: Organization of Animal Bodies

Learning Objectives:

1. List the levels of organization in animal bodies
2. Identify the tissue types found in vertebrates

Tissue

Tissues- groups of cells of a single type and function

4 Types:

1. Connective Tissue
2. Epithelial Tissue
3. Muscle Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue

Organs

• Organs- self contained structures with discrete borders
• Organ System- a group of organs that cooperate to perform the major animal bodily functions
• Organs and organ systems provide specialized functions

41.2: Epithelial Tissue

Learning Objectives:

1. Describe the structure and function of an epithelium
2. Illustrated the cell types found in epithelial tissue
3. Compare the structure and function of different epithelia

Epithelial Tissue

• Epithelial structure determines its function
• Simple epithelium has one layer
• Stratified epithelium has layers
• Pseudostratified epithelium appears layered but is not
• Glands are composed of epithelial tissues that produce metabolic products and secrete them into ducts or body fluid

41.3: Connective Tissue

Learning Objectives:

1. Describe the structure and function of connective tissue
2. Differentiate among forms of connective tissue
3. List the cells that make connective tissue

Connective Tissue

The cells in most connective tissue are not in contact with each other and are supported by a vast amount of extracellular material called the matrix

Two Major Classes of Connective Tissue

1. Connective tissue proper
2. Special connective tissues

Connective Tissue Proper

• May be either loose or dense
• Loose Connective- consists of cells scattered within a matrix that contains a large amount of the ground substance
• Adipose Cells (fat tissue)- important for nutrient
• Dense Connective Tissue- contains tightly packed collagen fibers making it stronger than loose connective tissues
• Special Connective Tissues have unique characteristics
  • Cartilage- specialized connective tissue in which the ground substance forms a characteristic type of glycoprotein, called chondroitin
  • Bone- the matrix in bone tissue is composed of calcium phosphate crystals
  • Bone Cells (Osteocytes)- remain alive even though the extracellular matrix becomes hardened with calcium phosphate crystals
  • Blood- we classify blood as a connective tissue because it contains abundant extracelluar material, the fluid plasma

41.4: Muscle Tissue

Learning Objective:

1. Identify the unique features of muscle cells
2. Differentiate among the three kinds of muscle cells

Muscle Tissue

• Characterized by the ability to generate a force by converting chemical energy into mechanical energy

3 Types

• Smooth
• Skeletal
• Cardiac

Smooth Muscle

• Occurs in the organs of the internal environment, or viscera
• Not controlled by conscious thought

Skeletal Muscle

• Moves the body
• Is controlled by conscious thought

Cardiac Muscle

• The heart is composed of cardiac muscle and is the only place cardiac muscle is found

41.5: Nerve Tissue

Learning Objectives

1. Describe the basic structure of neurons
2. Describe the function of neuroglial cells

Neurons

• Neurons- elongated cells that conduct electrical impulses
• Neuroglia- provide support for neurons by holding them in place, aiding in nourishment, and providing protection

41.6: Overview of Vertebrate Organ Systems

Learning Objectives

1. Identify the different organ systems in vertebrates
2. Explain the functional organizations of these systems

Groupings

We approach the organ systems by placing them in the following functional groupings:

• Communication and integration
• Support and movement
• Regulation and maintenance
• Defense
• Reproduction and development

Communication and Integration

• Sense and respond to the environment
• The nervous system
  • Sensory systems
• The endocrine system

Support and Movement

• Skeletal support and movement are vital to all animals
• The musculoskeletal system consists of two interrelated organ systems

Regulation and Maintenance

• Regulation and the maintenance of the body’s chemistry ensures continued life
• The Digestive System- includes how we eat, absorb nutrients, and eliminate solid wastes
• The Circulatory System- contains the heart and vessels that pump and distribute blood, carrying nutrients and other and other substances throughout the body
• The Respiratory System- helps the body acquire oxygen and expel carbon dioxide
• The Urinary System- helps vertebrates regulate the concentration of their body fluids
• The body can defend itself from attackers and invaders
• The Integumentary System- (skin) the first line of defense
• The Immune System- responds to any invaders that penetrate the first defense

Reproduction and Development

• Reproduction and development ensure continuity of the species
• The reproductive system is responsible for biological continuity

41.7: Homeostasis

Learning Objectives

1. Explain homeostasis
2. Illustrate how negative feedback can limit a response
3. Illustrate how antagonistic effectors can maintain a system at a set point

Negative Feedback

• Negative Feedback- serves to maintain a “normal” status of a variable
• Negative feedback mechanisms keep values within a range
• It is a common biochemical mechanism where the end result of a process feeds back to a limit the process

41.8: Regulation

Learning Objectives

1. Explain Q10 and its significance
2. Describe the classification of organisms based on temperature regulation
3. Describe mechanisms for temperature homeostasis

Q10

• Q10- is a measure of temperature sensitivity
• The ration between the rates of a reaction at two temperatures that differ by 10 degrees C is called the Q10 for the enzyme

Temperature

• Temperature is determined by internal and external factors
• External Factors:
  • Music
  • Lighting
  • Temperature
  • Humidity
• Internal Factors:
  • Excitement
  • Enjoyment
  • Anxiety
  • Fear
• Changes in temperature can effect level of mental concentration and performance
• Organisms are classified based on heat source
  • Organisms that use metabolism to generate body heat and maintain their temperatures above the ambient temperature are called endotherms
  • Endotherms create internal metabolic heat for conservation or dissipation
  • Body size and insulation (smaller animals have a higher metabolism)
  • Animals with a relatively low metabolic rate that do not use metabolism to produce heat are called ectotherms
  • Ectotherms regulate temperature using behavior

Thermogenesis

• Thermogenesis- when temperature falls below a critical lower threshold, an animal may resort to thermogenesis, the use of normal metabolism to produce heat
• Mammalian thermoregulation is controlled by the hypothalamus

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Final

1. List four main types of tissue
2. Four levels of organization
3. Eleven body systems

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