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Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
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Toxicity

Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance/mixture of substances can damage an organism or cell. Depends on both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors include genetic polymorphisms, sex, immune system and circadian rhythm. Extrinsic factors include dose, exposure route, duration and co-exposure to other chemicals.

Types of toxicity include chemical, biological, physical, radiation and behavioural toxicity. Chemical toxicity measures harmful effects of a substance to cause harmful health effects eg chlorine gas and cyanide. Biological toxicity measures harmful effects of biological agents eg toxins and venoms.

Mutagen = anything that causes a change in cell DNA
Carcinogenic = causes mutation that causes mutation which promotes the formation of cancer
Teratogenic = causes structural/functional change by altering foetal tissue development

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) underpin toxicity mechanism of many compounds, and are generated by the reduction of oxygen.

ROS can be endogenous or exogenous. Endogenous ROS are byproducts of normal cellular activity eg oxidative phosphorylation, transition metal ions and thymidine/polyamine catabolism. Exogenous ROS are byproducts of xenobiotic metatolism or radiation therapy eg ionisation of water following radiation therapy, xenobiotics compromising ROS antioxidant defense systems or metabolised to a free radical.

ROS can be radicals or non-radicals. A free radical is an atom, molecule or ion with at least one unpaired valence electron eg hydroxyl radicals (most reactive) or superoxide anions. Non radical ROS includes hydrogen peroxide or hypochlorous acid (HOCl).

ROS cause toxicity by direct damage to macromolecules by reacting with them eg to DNA by oxidising bases, lipids by peroxidation, or carbonylation of proteins.

Cells reduce ROS with antioxidants. Enzymatic antioxidants include superoxide dismutase, catalase, thioredoxin, redox proteins or peroxidoxin. Nonenzymatic include vitamin C, flavonoid, carotenoid, glutathione and vitamin E.

Glutathione, or GSH, is a tripeptide of glutamate cysteine and glycine. There’s an unusual gamma peptide linkage between the carboxyl group of the glutamate side chain and cysteine. Very high expression of glutathione in cells, and in healthy cells 90% is in the reduced form.

Glutathione directly quenches some free radicals by reacting with the thiol group. Is also cofactor for many antioxidant enzymes and regenerates vitamin C and E.

Metabolism of xenobiotics occurs to recycle useful structures and to make them more soluble to aid excretion. Mainly carried out in the liver in the hepatic portal vein. Many of the enzymes used in metabolism evolved to deal with compounds in the diet. As a result of metabolism the compound is either activated (more toxic) or detoxified (less toxic).

H2O2 + 2GSH → GSSG + 2H2

Phase I metabolism = modification (oxidation/reduction/hydrolysis/hydration)

Phase 2 metabolism = conjugation (to glutathione/sulphate/glucoronide or acetylation)

Phase III metabolism = excretion

Phase I enzyme examples:

oxidation eg cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs)

reduction eg quinone reductase (NQO1)

hydrolysis eg esterases/amidases

hydration = epoxide hydrolase.

These enzymes introduce a polar group into a substrate. They aid solubility but can increase reactivity - prodrug activation often occurs in phase I.

Example phase II enzyme is glutathione S-transferases. They conjugate the molecule to a charged species. The product has a higher molecular weight and tends to be less active. The polar/charged product can’t diffuse across the cell membrane so requires active transporters.

Enzymes for phase III metabolism are xenobiotic transporters, multi drug resistance protein 1/2, transmembrane proteins and ATP dependent efflux pumps. These proteins have a physiological role in lipid translocation and are upregulated in many cancers.

Benzo[a]pyrene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon formed in incomplete combustion of organic matter, found in grilled meat and tobacco smoke and metabolised into a carcinogen.

Benzo[a]pyrene activated by CYP → epoxide. Epoxide detoxified by EH → dihydrodiol. Dihydrodiol activated by CYP → benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide, which is detoxifie. Intermediate conjugated to GST and excreted

Benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide is an active carcinogen which intercalates into DNA, reacting with guanine bases and distorting the double helix. This disrupts DNA replication and causes mutation eg in p53 it causes G to T mutation.

Intrinsic factors affecting detoxification enzymes includes species due to different dietary challenges, sex due to hormonal enzyme regulation and diet as it is the main source of xenobiotics.

Genetic polymorphisms are alterations in gene sequence leading to 2+ forms of the allele in the population eg single nucleotide polymorphisms. Alteration in genotype can affect phenotype and gene product activity may be altered. Genetic variation alters susceptibility to toxic substances, causes adverse drug reactions and can increase susceptibility to cancer.

Toxicogenetics is the study of how genetic differences influence susceptibility to toxic effects of chemicals including drugs, environmental toxins and other hazardous substances.

There are generally 4 main genotypes for metabolism: normal, poor, ultrafast and intermediate.

Hepatic CYP2D6 metabolises approximately 25% of prescribed drugs and metabolises codeine to morphine. It is highly polymorphic with over 100 alleles. In poor metabolisers pain relief may be inadequate whereas ultra fast metabolisers have a rapid increase in morphine and may experience overdose symptoms on a therapeutic dose.

Poor metabolisers - CYPD2D6:

  • 0.4 to 6.5% of population

  • CYP2D6*4 mutation

  • intron 3/exon 4 boundary

  • shift of consensus acceptor splice site - mRNA has extra bases and premature stop codon

  • OR CYP2D6*5 deletion

Ultra-fast metabolisers - CYP2D6:

  • 1 to 2% of individuals

  • increased copy number - more genes therefore increased mRNA and protein etc

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how genes affect a person’s response to drugs. Aims to understand how genetic variation affects efficacy, dosage and safety of drugs to optimise drug therapy.

Mutagens cause DNA damage eg point mutation, DNA rearrangement, DNA and chromosomal breaks. Mutations in germ cells can give rise to inherited genetic diseases. Mutagens can cause cancer, trigger cell cycle arrest and cell death.

ROS causes lipid oxidation. Lipid oxidation products can damage DNA, resulting in altered membrane dynamics and impaired membrane function. Membrane leakage and cell lysis may occur via ferroptosis.

Protein damage occurs through oxidation of amino acid side chains. Sulphur containing amino acids are at risk. Amino acid oxidation alters protein conformation, potentially affecting function which is a major issue if protein involved in DNA repair, transcription, translation or cell cycle control.

Necrosis = non-regulated cell death. Cell and organelles swell, random DNA degradation and plasma membrane function.

Types of regulated cell death = apoptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, pyroptosis, cuproptosis and ferroptosis.

apoptosis

autophagy

necroptosis

pyroptosis

cuproptosis

ferroptosis

cell shrinkage, membrane bleb

autophagosome forms

swelling of cell and organelles

cell swells

mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilisation

normal cell size

unaltered mitochondria

DNA condensation

mitochondria outer membrane swells and becomes permeable

inflammasome forms

DNA condensation, large scale fragmentation

smaller than normal mitochondria, increased density and no cristae

DNA condensation and fragmentation

large scale fragmentation

random DNA degradation

DNA condensation and fragmentation

no DNA condensation

membrane rupture

membrane pores form

no loss of membrane integrity

/

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Chapter 24: Forensic DNA Databases: Tools for Crime Investigation
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Introducing Rhetoric: Using the “Available Means”
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Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception
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Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
noteNote
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4.5(2)
Radioactivity
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studied byStudied by 68 people
5.0(1)
Chapter Fourteen: Schizophrenia and Related Disorders
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studied byStudied by 12 people
5.0(1)