WGU - C963 Section 2

inherent powers: powers of the president or Congress that are neither enumerated nor implied but assumed to exist as a direct result of the country's existence

oversight: the right and responsibility of one body or branch of government to review and monitor other bodies; for example, Congress oversees federal agencies and programs, which are managed by the executive branch

committees: small sets of representatives tasked with considering, researching, introducing, and investigating particular policy areas

appropriation: a provision of money by Congress for the items requested in a budget

deficit spending: when the federal government spends more money in a fiscal year than it earns

discretionary spending: in the context of the U.S. budget, spending that can be changed from year to year through the congressional appropriations process, including spending on scientific research, housing assistance, veterans’ health care, education, and transportation

budget resolution: a plan for how much a government will receive in revenue and spend over the next fiscal year, including a set of budget priorities and discretionary spending limits

pork-barrel spending: spending on often unnecessary local projects that benefit a specific member of Congress's district or state

line-item veto: the ability of an executive to reject specific portions of a piece of legislation rather than reject the entire bill; in the United States, most governors have this power, but the power of line-item vetoes for the president has been ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court

Interstate Commerce Clause: one of the enumerated (expressed) powers of Congress; this is the power to regulate commerce and trade between two or more states

advice and consent: a Constitutional power, stating that presidential nominations for executive and judicial posts take effect only when confirmed by the Senate; also, foreign treaties become official only when the Senate approves them by a two-thirds vote

supermajority: also referred to as an absolute majority, this is a specific number greater than 50 percent, such as two-thirds; this is different from a simple majority, which is any number greater than 50 percent

filibuster: a political procedure led by a legislator (in the United States, a senator) to delay or prevent debate on a proposal, usually by "holding the floor" and speaking continuously, refusing to yield; to break a filibuster, three-fifths of senators (60/100) present must vote to end it (cloture)

administrative agencies: government organizations created by Congress to enforce laws, policies, and government programs; organized under the president in the executive branch and employing millions of federal workers

majority party: the political party with the most seats in the House of Representatives or the Senate

minority party: the political party with the least number of seats in the House of Representatives or the Senate

Speaker of the House: in the House of Representatives, the elected leader of the majority party who serves as the chief presiding officer; the person who makes committee assignments, controls the agenda and voting, etc.

majority leader: in the U.S. House of Representatives, the second-in-command to the Speaker of the House; both are from the party with majority control

minority leader: the elected leader of the minority party; in the U.S. House of Representatives, the leader of the minority party, elected by the party members in the House

majority whip: in either the House of Representatives or the Senate, a leader from the majority political party whose job it is to help coordinate strategy and maintain discipline among the members of the party; the term comes from a hunting term, "whipper-in," whose job is to prevent hounds from wandering away from the pack

minority whip: in either the House of Representatives or the Senate, a leader from the minority political party whose job it is to help coordinate strategy and maintain discipline among the members of the party; the term comes from a hunting term, "whipper-in," whose job is to prevent hounds from wandering away from the pack

president pro tempore: in the U.S. Senate, the person who serves as the chief presiding officer in the absence of the vice president; this role is often ceremoniously given to the longest-serving senator of the majority party

standing committee: a permanent committee that exists from session to session for the purpose of researching, writing, and introducing proposed pieces of legislation in a particular policy area

select committee: a temporary congressional committee created to investigate a specific issue or policy area not covered by a standing committee.

joint committee: a committee containing members of both the House of Representatives and the Senate who work together on a specific issue such as economic or tax policies

conference committee: a type of joint committee whose job it is to form one single bill from of different versions of the same bill passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate

Rules Committee: in the House of Representatives, a powerful committee that decides the rules for debate and amendments made to a piece of legislation; in the Senate, a similar group called the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration is less powerful, as it does not set the rules of debate

cloture: a tactic in the U.S. Senate where 60 members (three-fifths) of the entire Senate vote to end a filibuster

gerrymandering: a word with an unusual origin (Massachusetts governor Elbridge Gerry signed a bill in 1812 that created a partisan district in the Boston area that was shaped like a salamander; the name Gerry, combined with the word salamander, became "gerrymander"); the process of creating political advantage by re-drawing electoral districts, producing districts biased in favor of one particular political party

redistricting: closely aligned to reapportionment, this is the re-drawing of electoral districts to accommodate changes in a state’s population based on the last census; the goal of redistricting is to create districts that are as equal as possible in population

census: a population count which, in the United States, is constitutionally required every 10 years as the first step in congressional reapportionment

reapportionment: the once-per-decade process of assigning the House of Representatives' 435 seats to districts in the 50 states according to population, as determined by the most recent U.S. census

commander in chief: a constitutional power giving the president authority over all parts of the U.S. military, including promoting and dismissing military commanders and officers

bipartisan: meaning "two factions"; when both political parties agree on a particular government action, issue, or law

articles of impeachment: the motion or document that officially accuses an executive or judicial official of a constitutional abuse; this motion is voted on, yes or no, by the entire House of Representatives, and if it receives a majority vote, then the articles of impeachment have been adopted and the official has been impeached

Monroe Doctrine: a principle of U.S. policy, created by President James Monroe, by declaring that interventions by European powers in the affairs of the nations of the Western Hemisphere would be considered as intolerable acts of aggression by the United States

executive memorandum: a presidential power, similar to an executive order, used to manage various departments and agencies of the federal government

executive agreements: formal agreements between leaders of countries that do not need Senate approval; in the United States, a president can make these agreements without ratification by the Senate (as a treaty would require)

recess appointment: an appointment of a federal official by the president at a time when the Senate is not in session and is therefore unable to confirm appointments

loophole: a flaw in the system that allows someone to avoid having to follow a rule

civil cases: court cases based on civil law, not criminal law; includes disagreements between individuals and companies, individuals and government agencies, and foreign individuals or governments; also includes questions of constitutionality

lower court: in the federal court system, any court that is not the federal Supreme Court; in the state court system, any court that is not a state Supreme Court

appeal: asking a higher court to overturn the decision of a lower court

party: in law cases, a person (or group) who is directly involved with the case; sometimes referred to as opposing parties; this is different from a political party

circuit courts: courts that hear cases in several counties or districts in a state; each case in a circuit court is heard by a panel of three judges who rotate through each of these districts

judicial review: a principle that courts have the power to overturn laws passed by Congress and even actions of the president if such laws or actions conflict with the Constitution; this power was established in the case Marbury v. Madison

precedent: a decision made in one court case that is used to justify a decision made in a later case

stare decisis: meaning “let the decision stand,” a principle that courts should rely on previous decisions and established precedents as they make decisions

judicial activism: a viewpoint that U.S. courts should defend individual rights and liberties and stop actions by other branches of government that they see as infringing on those rights

strict constructionist: an approach to interpreting the Constitution based on the idea that the national government can only do those things that are specifically mentioned in the Constitution

loose construction: an approach to interpreting the Constitution based on the idea that judges can reinterpret constitutional language to create new legal standards appropriate for changing conditions

judicial restraint: a viewpoint that judges should be reluctant to overturn the acts of Congress, the president, or the states, deferring decisions (and thus, policymaking) to elected branches of government; proponents of judicial restraint focus on a narrow, strict interpretation of the Bill of Rights

defer: agree to follow someone else's opinion

common law: the form of law that is based on custom, precedent, and court decisions in England, rather than on legislative decree

federalism: a system and structure of government that divides constitutional power and authority between the national government and state governments

expressed powers: also known as the enumerated powers of the Constitution; powers to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, raise and support armies, declare war, coin money, and conduct foreign affairs

implied powers: powers not expressly defined in the Constitution but assumed through interpretation of the Necessary and Proper Clause

Elastic Clause: a clause in the U.S. Constitution, formally known as the Necessary and Proper Clause, that can be "stretched" to allow Congress to make laws on policies beyond those listed (or "enumerated") powers; "stretching" this clause produces what are termed "implied powers"

concurrent powers: powers shared by state and federal governments, including the power to tax, to borrow money, to build infrastructure, to establish courts, to establish legal punishments, and to declare eminent domain