Untitled Flashcards Set

Motivation

• Importance/Application/Use: Motivation is the psychological factor that drives a person to take actions toward achieving a goal. It is essential for initiating, guiding, and sustaining behavior in various contexts such as work, relationships, and personal development.

Instinct Theory

• Importance/Application/Use: Suggests that behavior is driven by instincts—innate, unlearned patterns of behavior shared by all members of a species. It was an early attempt to explain motivation, though it’s been largely replaced by more modern theories.

Psychological Needs

• Importance/Application/Use: These are needs that motivate behavior, such as the need for social connection, esteem, or self-actualization. Fulfilling these needs is crucial for psychological well-being and mental health.

Drive-reduction Theory

• Importance/Application/Use: Proposes that motivation arises from the need to reduce physiological drives, such as hunger or thirst. When an imbalance occurs, the body motivates actions to restore balance, such as eating when hungry.

Homeostasis

• Importance/Application/Use: The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment, such as body temperature or blood sugar levels. Homeostasis drives many physiological processes and is a key concept in motivation theories.

Incentives

• Importance/Application/Use: External stimuli or rewards that motivate behavior. These can be tangible (money, food) or intangible (praise, status).

Arousal Theory

• Importance/Application/Use: Suggests that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that maintain optimal levels of arousal (neither too high nor too low), which influences attention, performance, and engagement in activities.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

• Importance/Application/Use: States that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance—too little or too much arousal can impair performance. This is often illustrated as an inverted U-shaped curve.

Hierarchy of Needs

• Importance/Application/Use: Maslow’s theory that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, from basic needs (like food and safety) to higher-level needs (like self-esteem and self-actualization). People are motivated to fulfill lower needs before higher ones.

Maslow

• Importance/Application/Use: Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs theory. He proposed that human motivation is driven by the need to satisfy basic needs first, progressing to more complex needs like personal growth and fulfillment.

Hunger Motivation

• Importance/Application/Use: Refers to the drive to eat, motivated by biological needs for energy. This includes signals from the stomach, hormones, and brain mechanisms that regulate eating behaviors.

Physiological Factors

• Importance/Application/Use: These are physical or biological factors (e.g., blood sugar, hormones) that influence behavior. For example, low blood sugar can trigger hunger motivation.

Glucose

• Importance/Application/Use: The primary energy source for the body and brain. Low glucose levels can lead to feelings of hunger and motivate eating.

Insulin

• Importance/Application/Use: A hormone produced by the pancreas that helps regulate blood sugar levels. It also plays a role in hunger signals by promoting the storage of glucose in cells.

Leptin

• Importance/Application/Use: A hormone produced by fat cells that signals to the brain when the body has sufficient energy stores, helping to regulate long-term energy balance and reduce hunger.

Orexin

• Importance/Application/Use: A hormone involved in the regulation of appetite and arousal. It stimulates hunger and increases food-seeking behavior.

PYY

• Importance/Application/Use: A hormone released by the intestines that helps reduce appetite by signaling the brain when the body is full.

Set Point

• Importance/Application/Use: The theory that each person has a biologically determined weight range, which the body tries to maintain through mechanisms like hunger regulation and metabolic changes.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

• Importance/Application/Use: The rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to maintain vital functions like breathing and maintaining body temperature. It influences energy expenditure and weight regulation.

Psychological Factors

• Importance/Application/Use: These factors, like emotional states, stress, or perceptions, can influence motivation and behavior, such as eating or exercising.

Neophobia

• Importance/Application/Use: The fear or dislike of new foods, which can affect eating behaviors and preferences.

Unit Size

• Importance/Application/Use: Refers to the portion size of food or drink. Larger portions can lead to overeating, even when individuals are not hungry.

Social Facilitation

• Importance/Application/Use: The tendency for people to perform tasks better when they are in the presence of others. This can affect behaviors like eating or exercising.

Obesity and Weight Control

• Importance/Application/Use: Obesity is a condition of excessive body fat, often linked to poor health outcomes. Weight control involves managing eating habits, physical activity, and psychological factors to maintain a healthy weight.

Environmental Factors

• Importance/Application/Use: Factors like food availability, cultural norms, and social influences that shape behaviors like eating, physical activity, and lifestyle choices.

Sexual Motivation

• Importance/Application/Use: The drive to engage in sexual activity, influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors. It is essential for reproduction and intimacy.

Asexual

• Importance/Application/Use: A person who experiences little or no sexual attraction to others.

Testosterone

• Importance/Application/Use: A hormone that plays a key role in sexual desire and arousal, particularly in men, though it also affects women’s sexual motivation.

Estrogen

• Importance/Application/Use: A hormone that plays a key role in female sexual motivation and reproductive functions.

Sexual Response Cycle

• Importance/Application/Use: Describes the stages of sexual activity: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Excitement

• Importance/Application/Use: The initial phase of sexual arousal, marked by physical signs like increased heart rate and genital arousal.

Plateau

• Importance/Application/Use: The phase where sexual excitement stabilizes before reaching orgasm.

Orgasm

• Importance/Application/Use: The climax of sexual pleasure, often accompanied by intense physical and emotional sensations.

Resolution

• Importance/Application/Use: The phase following orgasm, where the body returns to its resting state.

Refractory Period

• Importance/Application/Use: A period after orgasm during which an individual cannot be aroused again, typically observed in males.

External Stimuli

• Importance/Application/Use: External factors like sights, sounds, or touch that can influence sexual arousal.

Imagined Stimuli

• Importance/Application/Use: Internal mental stimuli (e.g., fantasies) that can also lead to sexual arousal.

Affiliation Need

• Importance/Application/Use: The need for social connection, belonging, and positive relationships with others. It is a key driver in human behavior and well-being.

Benefits of Belonging

• Importance/Application/Use: Belonging to a group or community promotes emotional support, a sense of identity, and can enhance mental health.

Ostracism

• Importance/Application/Use: The social exclusion or rejection of an individual, which can have serious psychological consequences like loneliness and depression.

Impact of Social Networking

• Importance/Application/Use: Social networking can influence emotions, relationships, and behavior by providing both positive (e.g., connection) and negative (e.g., comparison, cyberbullying) effects.

Achievement Motivation

• Importance/Application/Use: The desire to accomplish goals, achieve success, and gain personal satisfaction. It drives individuals to pursue excellence in various domains of life.

Grit

• Importance/Application/Use: Passion and perseverance for long-term goals. It is a key factor in achieving success despite obstacles.

Emotions

• Importance/Application/Use: Emotional responses are complex psychological and physiological reactions to stimuli, influencing behavior and decision-making.

James-Lange Theory

• Importance/Application/Use: Proposes that emotions are the result of physiological reactions to external stimuli (e.g., we feel afraid because our heart rate increases).

Cannon-Bard Theory

• Importance/Application/Use: Suggests that physiological reactions and emotional experiences occur simultaneously, not sequentially.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

• Importance/Application/Use: Proposes that emotion is the result of both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

Additional Theories of Emotion

• Importance/Application/Use: These theories include alternative perspectives on how emotions arise and are experienced, such as the cognitive appraisal theory by Richard Lazarus, which emphasizes cognitive evaluation of stimuli.

Robert Aajonc

• Importance/Application/Use: Proposed that emotional responses can occur before conscious thought, emphasizing the automatic nature of some emotional reactions.

Joseph LeDoux

• Importance/Application/Use: Focused on the brain structures involved in emotions, particularly the amygdala’s role in emotional processing, especially fear.

Richard Lazarus

• Importance/Application/Use: Developed the cognitive appraisal theory, which emphasizes how individuals assess and interpret emotional events, influencing emotional responses.

Primary Emotions

• Importance/Application/Use: Basic emotions that are universally experienced, such as fear, anger, sadness, happiness, surprise, and disgust.

Impact of Emotions on the Nervous System

• Importance/Application/Use: Emotions can activate physiological responses in the autonomic nervous system (e.g., fight-or-flight responses, heart rate changes).

Physiology of Emotions

• Importance/Application/Use: Involves the activation of the brain (like the amygdala), hormonal responses, and autonomic nervous system changes that prepare the body for action.

Polygraph

• Importance/Application/Use: A machine that measures physiological responses (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure) to detect lies, based on the assumption that emotions such as anxiety influence physiological states.

Detecting Emotions

• Importance/Application/Use: Emotional expression can be detected through facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, and physiological markers like heart rate and skin conductance.

Differences in Gender

• Importance/Application/Use: Men and women may experience and express emotions differently, influenced by both biological and cultural factors.

Differences in Culture

• Importance/Application/Use: Cultural norms and practices shape how emotions are experienced, expressed, and interpreted across different societies.

Effects of Facial Expressions

• Importance/Application/Use: Facial expressions convey emotional information, and they can influence emotional experiences both for the person displaying them and for those observing.

Facial Feedback Effect

• Importance/Application/Use: The idea that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences, i.e., smiling can make you feel happier.

Behavior Feedback Effect

• Importance/Application/Use: The idea that behavior (e.g., posture, body movements) can influence emotions, such as walking confidently making one feel more powerful.

Stress

• Importance/Application/Use: Stress is a physiological and psychological response to perceived challenges or threats, which can affect health and well-being.

Impact of the Following:

• Catastrophes: Major events that cause significant stress, like natural disasters or acts of violence, which can lead to psychological trauma.

• Significant Life Changes: Major life transitions (e.g., divorce, loss of a loved one) can also cause stress and affect mental health.

Lewin’s Conflict Theory

• Importance/Application/Use: Describes how individuals are motivated to choose between conflicting alternatives, leading to three types of conflict: approach-approach, approach-avoidance, and avoidance-avoidance.

General Adaptation Syndrome

• Importance/Application/Use: Describes the three stages (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) the body goes through when responding to stress.

Tend and Befriend Response

• Importance/Application/Use: A stress response more common in women, involving social bonding and seeking support to cope with stress.

Psychoneuroimmunology

• Importance/Application/Use: The study of how the mind (psychological state), the nervous system, and immune function interact and influence health outcomes.

Stress and Cancer

• Importance/Application/Use: Chronic stress can weaken the immune system and potentially contribute to the development or progression of cancer.

Coronary Heart Disease

• Importance/Application/Use: A condition where stress, particularly chronic stress, can lead to heart disease due to the impact on the cardiovascular system.

Type A and Type B

• Importance/Application/Use: Type A individuals are competitive, driven, and often experience high stress, which is associated with increased risk of heart disease. Type B individuals are more relaxed and less prone to stress-related health issues.

Catharsis

• Importance/Application/Use: The idea that releasing emotions (e.g., through venting) can lead to emotional relief and reduce tension.

Optimism

• Importance/Application/Use: A positive outlook that can improve coping strategies, health, and well-being, especially in the face of adversity.

Pessimism

• Importance/Application/Use: A negative outlook that may contribute to higher stress and poorer physical and mental health outcomes.

Impact of Social Support

• Importance/Application/Use: Strong social support networks provide emotional, practical, and informational support, which is essential for stress management and overall well-being.

 Aerobic Exercise

• Importance/Use: Aerobic exercise, such as running, swimming, or cycling, improves cardiovascular health, increases stamina, and has positive effects on mental health by reducing stress and anxiety.

• Application: Regular aerobic exercise promotes overall physical and mental well-being and is often recommended in managing depression and anxiety disorders.

 Relaxation

• Importance/Use: Relaxation techniques (like deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation) reduce stress, promote mental clarity, and improve overall health.

• Application: Often used in stress management and therapy to improve well-being and reduce symptoms of anxiety.

 Biofeedback

• Importance/Use: Biofeedback teaches individuals to control physiological functions (like heart rate, muscle tension) through real-time data, helping reduce stress, pain, and anxiety.

• Application: Used for treating conditions like chronic pain, high blood pressure, and anxiety disorders.

 Mindfulness

• Importance/Use: Mindfulness involves focusing on the present moment without judgment. It promotes emotional regulation, stress reduction, and mental clarity.

• Application: Used in therapy (e.g., mindfulness-based stress reduction, or MBSR) to manage stress, anxiety, and depression.

 Meditation

• Importance/Use: Meditation is a practice that promotes relaxation, focus, and stress reduction. It can improve mental health, reduce anxiety, and increase emotional regulation.

• Application: Common in mindfulness practices and therapy to achieve mental clarity and calmness.

 Feel-good, do-good phenomenon

• Importance/Use: The phenomenon where individuals who feel happy or content are more likely to help others.

• Application: Often used in social psychology to explain the connection between positive emotions and prosocial behavior.

 Positive Psychology

• Importance/Use: Positive psychology focuses on strengths, well-being, and the positive aspects of life, rather than just treating mental illness.

• Application: Applied in therapies to improve life satisfaction, happiness, and resilience.

 Subjective Well-being

• Importance/Use: Subjective well-being refers to an individual’s self-reported happiness and life satisfaction.

• Application: Used in assessing overall happiness and life quality in various psychological and sociological studies.

 Adaptation-level phenomenon

• Importance/Use: This theory suggests that people adapt to their current situations, so their sense of happiness or satisfaction depends on their previous experiences.

• Application: Important in understanding how individuals perceive changes in circumstances and how their expectations influence emotional responses.

 Relative deprivation

• Importance/Use: The feeling of being deprived relative to others, often leading to dissatisfaction and frustration.

• Application: Can be used to explain why people feel less satisfied or envious even when their objective situation is relatively good.

 Heritable

• Importance/Use: Traits or behaviors that are passed down genetically from one generation to another.

• Application: Used in genetics and psychology to study the inheritance of certain traits like intelligence or predisposition to mental health disorders.

 Personality

• Importance/Use: The combination of traits, behaviors, and patterns of thinking that make up an individual’s distinct character.

• Application: Studied to understand how individuals behave and interact with the world, often used in psychology assessments.

 Psychoanalysis

• Importance/Use: A therapeutic approach developed by Freud, focusing on unconscious thoughts and childhood experiences to explain and treat psychological disorders.

• Application: Used to explore unconscious drives, repressed memories, and unresolved conflicts.

 Freud

• Importance/Use: Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis, significantly influencing psychology through his theories of the unconscious, defense mechanisms, and psychosexual stages.

• Application: His work laid the foundation for modern psychology and psychoanalytic therapy.

 Sibling Rivalry

• Importance/Use: The competition or jealousy between siblings for attention, affection, or resources, often affecting their relationships.

• Application: Studied to understand family dynamics and interpersonal relationships.

 Freudian Slips

• Importance/Use: Unintentional errors in speech, memory, or action that are thought to reveal unconscious thoughts or feelings.

• Application: Analyzed in psychoanalysis to uncover repressed desires or conflicts.

 Fixation

• Importance/Use: According to Freud, fixation occurs when an individual becomes stuck in one of the psychosexual stages due to unresolved conflicts.

• Application: Important in psychoanalysis to explain certain adult behaviors rooted in childhood.

 Repression

• Importance/Use: A defense mechanism in which painful memories or emotions are pushed out of conscious awareness.

• Application: Used to explain how people cope with trauma or distressing thoughts.

 Ego

• Importance/Use: The part of the personality that mediates between the id (instincts) and the superego (morality), helping individuals function in the real world.

• Application: Central in Freud's theory of personality and psychoanalysis.

 Projection

• Importance/Use: A defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.

• Application: Often observed in therapeutic settings when individuals project their insecurities onto others.

 Complex

• Importance/Use: A term used in psychology to describe a group of unconscious thoughts, memories, and desires that influence behavior.

• Application: Helps in understanding how unresolved issues influence behavior and mental health.

 Unconscious

• Importance/Use: Refers to the part of the mind that holds thoughts, memories, and desires that are not immediately accessible to conscious awareness.

• Application: Central to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, influencing behavior and mental states.

 Free Association

• Importance/Use: A psychoanalytic technique where a person says whatever comes to mind, which is believed to reveal unconscious thoughts.

• Application: Used to uncover hidden thoughts or memories in therapeutic settings.

 Id, Ego, Superego

• Importance/Use: Freud's model of the psyche, where the id represents primal desires, the ego mediates between the id and reality, and the superego represents moral ideals.

• Application: Used to explain how different parts of the personality interact and influence behavior.

 Psychosexual Stages

• Importance/Use: Freud’s theory that personality develops through a series of stages focused on different erogenous zones (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital).

• Application: Used to understand the development of personality and unresolved conflicts.

 Oedipus Complex

• Importance/Use: A Freudian theory where a child experiences unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent and jealousy toward the same-sex parent.

• Application: Explains some aspects of family dynamics and the development of gender roles.

 Identification Process

• Importance/Use: A process in which children adopt characteristics of the same-sex parent to resolve the Oedipus complex and form their identity.

• Application: Central to understanding the formation of gender identity and personality.

 Fixate

• Importance/Use: In Freudian theory, fixating on a psychosexual stage due to unresolved conflicts can influence adult personality and behavior.

• Application: Used in psychoanalysis to explain adult behaviors stemming from childhood experiences.

 Defense Mechanisms

• Importance/Use: Psychological strategies used to cope with anxiety and protect the ego from distress.

• Application: Commonly discussed in psychoanalytic theory and used in understanding maladaptive behaviors.

 Alfred Adler

• Importance/Use: An early psychologist who proposed the importance of social factors and the drive for superiority in shaping personality.

• Application: His ideas influenced humanistic psychology and theories on the inferiority complex.

 Karen Horney

• Importance/Use: A psychoanalyst who challenged Freud’s ideas on women and emphasized the importance of cultural and social factors in personality development.

• Application: Influential in feminist psychology and the study of neurosis.

 Carl Jung

• Importance/Use: Developed analytical psychology, focusing on the concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes.

• Application: His ideas contributed to personality theory and therapy.

 Collective Unconscious

• Importance/Use: Jung’s theory that the unconscious mind contains shared memories and experiences from humanity’s evolutionary past.

• Application: Used in exploring universal human experiences across cultures.

 Projective Tests

• Importance/Use: Psychological assessments where individuals respond to ambiguous stimuli, revealing hidden emotions or desires.

• Application: Used in psychoanalysis to uncover unconscious thoughts.

 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

• Importance/Use: A projective test where individuals create stories about ambiguous images, revealing their emotions, desires, and motivations.

• Application: Used in clinical settings to explore unconscious thought patterns.

 Rorschach Inkblot Test

• Importance/Use: A projective test where individuals interpret ambiguous inkblots to uncover hidden emotions or conflicts.

• Application: Used in psychoanalytic therapy to explore personality and emotional functioning.

 Terror-Management Theory

• Importance/Use: Suggests that much of human behavior is motivated by the fear of death and the need to find meaning in life.

• Application: Used in social psychology to explain cultural and personal defense mechanisms against death anxiety.

 Humanistic Theory

• Importance/Use: Emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people.

• Application: Influences therapies focused on self-improvement and positive change.

 Hierarchy of Needs

• Importance/Use: Maslow’s theory that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

• Application: Used in psychology to understand motivation and personal development.

 Self-Actualization

• Importance/Use: The realization of one’s full potential, often considered the highest need in Maslow’s hierarchy.

• Application: In humanistic psychology, it’s a goal of personal growth and fulfillment.

 Self-Transcendence

• Importance/Use: The concept of rising above the self, reaching for a greater purpose or connection to others.

• Application: Recognized in humanistic psychology as a higher level of personal development.

 Carl Rogers

• Importance/Use: A key figure in humanistic psychology, known for his work on client-centered therapy and the concept of unconditional positive regard.

• Application: His theories are foundational in modern psychotherapy and understanding personal growth.

 Unconditional Positive Regard

• Importance/Use: Rogers’ concept of accepting and supporting a person regardless of their behavior or actions.

• Application: Used in therapy to create a safe, accepting environment for self-exploration.

 Self-Concept

• Importance/Use: The understanding and perception individuals have of themselves, encompassing their identity and personal worth.

• Application: Central in humanistic psychology and therapy, impacting self-esteem and personal development.

 Individualism vs. Collectivism

• Importance/Use: Refers to the cultural emphasis on personal independence (individualism) versus the focus on group harmony and interdependence (collectivism).

• Application: Helps understand cultural differences in behavior and attitudes.

 Traits

• Importance/Use: Enduring characteristics that describe an individual's consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

• Application: Central to personality psychology, where traits are used to assess and categorize personalities.

 Factor Analysis

• Importance/Use: A statistical method used to identify underlying factors that explain patterns of correlations among variables (often used to study personality traits).

• Application: Essential in developing personality assessments like the Big Five personality traits.

 Introvert vs. Extrovert

• Importance/Use: Describes two broad personality traits, with introverts being more reserved and focused on internal thoughts, and extroverts being outgoing and energized by social interactions.

• Application: Used in personality assessments to understand social behavior and preferences.

 Assessing Traits

• Importance/Use: The process of measuring personality traits, often using standardized inventories and assessments.

• Application: Key in psychological testing to understand personality profiles.

 Personality Inventories

• Importance/Use: Structured questionnaires designed to assess various aspects of a person’s personality.

• Application: Widely used in psychological assessment, counseling, and employment selection.

 MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

• Importance/Use: A widely used personality test that helps assess mental health disorders and personality structure.

• Application: Used by clinicians to diagnose mental disorders.

 The Big Five

• Importance/Use: A widely accepted model for describing personality through five broad traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

• Application: Used in personality psychology to classify and measure traits.

 Social-Cognitive Theories

• Importance/Use: Emphasizes the influence of cognitive processes and social environments on behavior.

• Application: Important in understanding learning, motivation, and personality development.

 Reciprocal Determinism

• Importance/Use: The theory that behavior, cognitive processes, and environmental factors influence each other.

• Application: Central to Bandura’s social-cognitive theory, explaining how individuals interact with and influence their environments.

 Concept of Self

• Importance/Use: An individual's understanding of their own identity, self-worth, and personal beliefs.

• Application: Key in humanistic psychology and self-esteem studies.

Spotlight Effect

• Importance/Use: The tendency to overestimate how much others notice or care about our appearance or behavior.

• Application: Important in social psychology, helping explain social anxiety and self-consciousness.

Self-Esteem

• Importance/Use: The evaluation of one’s own worth, influencing mental health and social behavior.

• Application: Low self-esteem is associated with mental health problems, while high self-esteem promotes confidence.

 Self-Efficacy

• Importance/Use: Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations.

• Application: Central in motivation and behavior change, influencing goals, persistence, and performance.

 Dunning-Kruger Effect

• Importance/Use: A cognitive bias where individuals with low ability or knowledge overestimate their competence.

• Application: Important in understanding errors in self-assessment and decision-making.

 Self-Serving Bias

• Importance/Use: The tendency to attribute successes to personal factors and failures to external factors.

• Application: Important in understanding how individuals perceive and justify their own behavior.

 Narcissism

• Importance/Use: A personality trait characterized by grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy.

• Application: Explored in personality psychology, with implications for relationships and mental health.

 Individualist

• Importance/Use: A person who values independence, self-reliance, and personal achievement over group harmony.

• Application: Often associated with Western cultures, which emphasize personal success and autonomy.

 Collectivist

• Importance/Use: A person who values group goals, interdependence, and social harmony over individual achievements.

• Application: Often associated with Eastern cultures, which prioritize the welfare of the group over the individual.