How People Think:

• Thinking (cognition) is the mental activity that occurs in the brain when information is being organized, stored, communicated, or processed

• Mental images represent objects or events and have a picture-like quality

• Concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of events, objects, or activities

• Prototypes are examples of a concept that more closely match the defining characteristics of that concept

• Problem-solving consists of thinking and behaving in certain ways to reach a goal

• Mechanical solutions include trial-and-error learning and rote solutions

• Algorithms are a type of rote solution in which one follows step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems

• A heuristic or rule of thumb is a strategy that narrows down the possible solutions to a problem

• Insight is the sudden perception of a solution to a problem

• Functional fixedness is the tendency to perceive objects as having only the use for which they are originally intended and, therefore, failing to see them as possible tools for solving other problems

• Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for evidence that confirms one’s belief, ignoring any evidence to the contrary

• Divergent thinking involves coming up with as many different answers as possible. This is a kind of creativity

• Creative people are usually good at mental imagery and have knowledge of their independence, and are often unconventional in their work but not in other areas

Intelligence

• Intelligence is the ability to understand the world, think rationally or logically, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges or problems

• Spearman proposed general intelligence, or g factor, as the ability to reason and solve problems, whereas specific intelligence, or s factor, ranges from includes task-specific abilities in certain areas such as music, business, or art

• Gardener proposed nine different types of intelligence, ranging from verbal, linguistic, and mathematical to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence

• Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical

• Emotional intelligence is viewed as a powerful influence on success in life

• The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that was once determined by dividing the mental age of the person by the chronological age and multiplying the quotient by qoo but now involves comparing a person’s score to a standardized norm

• The Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield four index scores derived from both verbal and nonverbal subtests and an overall score of intelligence

• Standardization, validity, and reliability are all important factors in the construction of an intelligence test

• Deviation IQs are based on the normal curve, defining different levels of intelligence based on the deviation of scores from a common mean

• IQ tests are often criticized for being culturally biased

• Mental retardation or developmental delay is a condition in which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age

• The four levels of delay are mild (55-70 IQ), moderate (40-55 IQ), severe (25-40 IQ), and profound (below 25 IQ)

• Causes of developmental delay include deprived environments as well as chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies

• Gifted persons are defined as those having IQ scores at the upper end of the curve (130 or below)

• Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases. The heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50

• In 1994, Herrnstein and Murray published The Bell Curve in which they made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence

Language

• Language is a system for combining symbols so that an infinite number of meaningful statements and be created and communicated to others

• Grammar is the system of rules by which language is governed and includes the rules for using phonemes, morphemes, and syntax. Pragmatics refers to practical aspects of language

• Sapir and Whorf originally proposed that language controls and helps the development of thought processes and concepts, an idea that is known as the linguistic aspects of language

• Other researchers have found evidence that concepts are universal and directly influence the development of language, called the cognitive universalism viewpoint

• Studies with Chimpanzees, parrots, and dolphins have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas

• Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language

• Mental activities that require creativity and use memory abilities, such as working crossword puzzles and reading books, can help keep the brain fit

Vocabulary

• thinking (cognition): the mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicate information to others

• mental images: mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality

• concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities

• Superordinate concept: the most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit”

• basic level type: an example of a type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized, such as “dog”, “cat”, or “pear”

• subordinate concept: the most specific category of a concept, such as one’s pet dog or a pear in one’s hand

• formal concepts: concepts that are defined by specific rules or features

• natural concepts: concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world

• prototype: an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept

• problem-solving: the process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways

• trial and error (mechanical solution): problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found

• algorithms: very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems

• heuristics: an educated guess based on prior experiences that help narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb”

• means-end analysis: heuristics in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference

• artificial intelligence: a machine that can think like a human

• functional fixed: a block to problem-solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions

• mental set: the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past

• confirmation bias: the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs

• creativity: the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways

• convergent thinking: type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic

• divergent thinking: type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point

• intelligence: the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems

• g factor: the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence

• s factor: the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligence

• triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternberg’s theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, practical

• analytical intelligence: the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem-solving

• creative intelligence: the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems

• practical intelligence: the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful

• reliability: the tendency of a test to produce the same scores, again and again, each time it is given to the same people

• validity: the degree the which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure

• developmentally delayed: the condition in which a person’s behavior and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age. A more acceptable term for mental retardation

• gifted: the 2% of the population that falls on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possesses an IQ of 130 or above

• emotional intelligence: the awareness of the ability to manage one’s own emotions as well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to feel what others feel, and socially skilled

• language: a system for combining symbols so that an infinite number of meaningful statements and be created and communicated to others

• grammer: rules that structure language

• pragmatics: aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of language

• syntax: the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences

• semantics: the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences

• phonemes: the basic units of sound in language

• linguistic relativity hypothesis: the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language

• cognitive universalism: the theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language

• cognitive reserve: the ability of the brain the build and maintain new neurons and the connections between them