AP Psychology: Chapter 7: Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

How People Think:

Thinking (cognition) is the mental activity that occurs in the brain when information is being organized, stored, communicated, or processed
Mental images represent objects or events and have a picture-like quality
Concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of events, objects, or activities
Prototypes are examples of a concept that more closely match the defining characteristics of that concept
Problem-solving consists of thinking and behaving in certain ways to reach a goal
Mechanical solutions include trial-and-error learning and rote solutions
Algorithms are a type of rote solution in which one follows step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems
A heuristic or rule of thumb is a strategy that narrows down the possible solutions to a problem
Insight is the sudden perception of a solution to a problem
Functional fixedness is the tendency to perceive objects as having only the use for which they are originally intended and, therefore, failing to see them as possible tools for solving other problems
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for evidence that confirms one’s belief, ignoring any evidence to the contrary
Divergent thinking involves coming up with as many different answers as possible. This is a kind of creativity
Creative people are usually good at mental imagery and have knowledge of their independence, and are often unconventional in their work but not in other areas

Intelligence

Intelligence is the ability to understand the world, think rationally or logically, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges or problems
Spearman proposed general intelligence, or g factor, as the ability to reason and solve problems, whereas specific intelligence, or s factor, ranges from includes task-specific abilities in certain areas such as music, business, or art
Gardener proposed nine different types of intelligence, ranging from verbal, linguistic, and mathematical to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence
Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical
Emotional intelligence is viewed as a powerful influence on success in life
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that was once determined by dividing the mental age of the person by the chronological age and multiplying the quotient by qoo but now involves comparing a person’s score to a standardized norm
The Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield four index scores derived from both verbal and nonverbal subtests and an overall score of intelligence
Standardization, validity, and reliability are all important factors in the construction of an intelligence test
Deviation IQs are based on the normal curve, defining different levels of intelligence based on the deviation of scores from a common mean
IQ tests are often criticized for being culturally biased
Mental retardation or developmental delay is a condition in which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age
The four levels of delay are mild (55-70 IQ), moderate (40-55 IQ), severe (25-40 IQ), and profound (below 25 IQ)
Causes of developmental delay include deprived environments as well as chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies
Gifted persons are defined as those having IQ scores at the upper end of the curve (130 or below)
Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases. The heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50
In 1994, Herrnstein and Murray published The Bell Curve in which they made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence

Language

Language is a system for combining symbols so that an infinite number of meaningful statements and be created and communicated to others
Grammar is the system of rules by which language is governed and includes the rules for using phonemes, morphemes, and syntax. Pragmatics refers to practical aspects of language
Sapir and Whorf originally proposed that language controls and helps the development of thought processes and concepts, an idea that is known as the linguistic aspects of language
Other researchers have found evidence that concepts are universal and directly influence the development of language, called the cognitive universalism viewpoint
Studies with Chimpanzees, parrots, and dolphins have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas
Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language
Mental activities that require creativity and use memory abilities, such as working crossword puzzles and reading books, can help keep the brain fit

\
\

Vocabulary

thinking (cognition): the mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicate information to others
mental images: mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality
concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities
Superordinate concept: the most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit”
basic level type: an example of a type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized, such as “dog”, “cat”, or “pear”
subordinate concept: the most specific category of a concept, such as one’s pet dog or a pear in one’s hand
formal concepts: concepts that are defined by specific rules or features
natural concepts: concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world
prototype: an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept
problem-solving: the process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways
trial and error (mechanical solution): problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found
algorithms: very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems
heuristics: an educated guess based on prior experiences that help narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb”
means-end analysis: heuristics in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference
artificial intelligence: a machine that can think like a human
functional fixed: a block to problem-solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions
mental set: the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past
confirmation bias: the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs
creativity: the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways
convergent thinking: type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic
divergent thinking: type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point
intelligence: the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems
g factor: the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence
s factor: the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligence
triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternberg’s theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, practical
analytical intelligence: the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem-solving
creative intelligence: the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems
practical intelligence: the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful
reliability: the tendency of a test to produce the same scores, again and again, each time it is given to the same people
validity: the degree the which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure
developmentally delayed: the condition in which a person’s behavior and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age. A more acceptable term for mental retardation
gifted: the 2% of the population that falls on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possesses an IQ of 130 or above
emotional intelligence: the awareness of the ability to manage one’s own emotions as well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to feel what others feel, and socially skilled
language: a system for combining symbols so that an infinite number of meaningful statements and be created and communicated to others
grammer: rules that structure language
pragmatics: aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of language
syntax: the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences
semantics: the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences
phonemes: the basic units of sound in language
linguistic relativity hypothesis: the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language
cognitive universalism: the theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language
cognitive reserve: the ability of the brain the build and maintain new neurons and the connections between them
\