Rocks

• What percent do sedimentary rocks comprise of all rocks on Earth?

  • 4%

• Rock known as “Nature’s Concrete.”

  • Conglomerate

• What determines the texture of igneous rocks?

  • Cooling rate of molten material

• Describe what happens when you put HCl on limestone.

  • Bubbling (effervescence)

• Describe what gneiss looks like.

  • coarse grained minerals in parallel bands of layers

• Which rock mostly comprises the oceanic crust?

  • Basalt

• Name the different types of limestone.

  • Lithographic

  • Coquina

  • Fossiliferous

  • Travertine

  • Chalk

  • Oolitic

  • Dolostone

• Describe the texture of coquina.

  • Shell fragments cemented together

• Describe the texture of obsidian.

  • Glassy, smooth, black with no crystals; “Volcanic Glass”

• What is the mineral composition of granite?

  • Quartz, Potassium Feldspar, and Sodium feldspar (SiO2, KAlSi₃O_8, NaAlSi₃O₈)

• Key Terms:

  • Foilated - layered grains (METAMORPHIC ROCKS ONLY)

  • Non-foilated - non layered rocks (METAMORPHIC ROCKS ONLY)

  • Parent Rock - original rock before igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary change

  • Metamorphic Rock - formed from mainly igneous and sedimentary rocks that have been changed by heat and pressure

    • Make up 1% of all rocks

    • Found deep in mountains and volcanic areas

  • Sedimentary Rocks - formed by the deposit, hardening, and cementing of sediments

    • Make up 4% of all rocks on Earth, but cover ¾ of the surface of the Earth

  • Igneous Rocks - formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot, molten material

    • Make up 95% of all rocks of Earth

    • Found deep in Earth, mountains, and volcanic areas

Volcanoes

• Where are the most active shield volcanoes located?

  • Hawaii

• Where is Wizard Island located?

  • In crater lake, in Oregon

• What types of gases are erupted from volcanoes?

  • Steam, CO2, and SO2

Earthquakes

• Describe what happens on a beach right before a tsunami hits.

  • The water will recede, leaving more space on the beach

• Name three examples of folding from our notes.

  • Anticline - upward fold

  • Syncline - downward fold

  • Monocline - 1.5 fold

• Strike-slip faults are found along which boundary type?

  • Shear boundaries

• Name two examples of folded mountains from our notes.

  • Appalachian and Himalayan Mts.

• Key Terms:

  • P-waves - 1st wave to reach an area; compression pattern in a straight line

  • S-waves - 2nd to reach an area; wavy or s-shaped pattern

  • L-waves - last to reach an area; complex pattern only travel on surface; most destructive wave

  • Modified Mercalli Scale - measures the intensity of an earthquake which is the effect oh humans and surface structures

  • Richter Scale - logarithmic scale which indicates the magnitude (energy released producing vertical motion) of the earthquake

  • Epicenter - point on the surface above the focus

Oceanography

• What is the largest ocean?

  • Pacific Ocean

• Percentage of Earth’s surface covered in oceans.

  • `71%

• Most abundant chemical in seawater.

  • NaCl (Halite)

• Where did the Sargasso Sea get its name?

  • Due to the seaweed

• What determines the density of seawater?

  • Dependent on temperature, salinity, and ocean depth

• Salinity in oceans is highest in regions where ___density_______ is high and ___temperatures______ are low.

• Know the 4 branches of oceanography.

  • Geological Oceanography

  • Chemical Oceanography

  • Physical Oceanography

  • Biological Oceanography

• Key Terms:

  • Challenger Deep - 1960 Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard descended to the bottom of the ___________ region of the Mariana Trench. Took 5 hours to reach the bottom and observed stirring sediment and small organisms like fish and jellies

  • Continental Shelf - flat zone from the shore to the shelf break (where a marked increase in slope angle occurs). Average width is 43 miles, but can go out 930 miles.

  • Salinity - total amount of solid material dissolved in water, expressed in parts-per-thousand

  • Upwelling zones - brings dissolved nutrients to the ocean surface from the rising of cold water from deep layers

  • Bathymetry - measurement of ocean depths and the charting of the shape or topography of the ocean floor

Intro to Astronomy

• What are Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion?

  • The planets move around the Sun in ellipses

  • When a planet is close to the Sun, it moves faster in its orbit than when it is further away

  • A planet’s period (how long it takes to go around the Sun nce) can be used to figure out its average distance from the Sun. (p2=a3)

• Who discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter?

  • Galileo

• Which space telescope launched on December 25, 2021 and is supposed to study our

  solar system, galaxies, and the nebular theory?

  • James Webb Telescope

• What are advantages of radio telescopes over optical telescopes?

  • `Radio waves can pass right through clouds of dust in space, where light rays are blocked out

  • Radio telescopes can be used day or night on Earth

• How many miles are in an astronomical unit? A light year?

  • 93 million miles = 1 AU. 1 LY = 6 trillion miles

• Key Terms:

  • Quasars: very distant, intense radio sources that are like stars, but brighter, larger, and more massive

  • Pulsar: distant objects that send out rapid bursts of energy (light and radio waves); blink on and off

  • Cosmology: study of the universe (origin and structure)

  • Galileo: 1. discovered Jupiter’s four moons 2. planets are spheres rather than just points of light, as had previously been thought. 3. Venus has phases and is smallest at its fullest phase 4. Moon’s surface is NOT smooth 5. Discovered sunspots

  • Zodiac: belt of 13 constellations (patterns of stars) through which the Sun appears to travel in

  • Copernicus: Heliocentric (sun-centered) universe and concluded Earth was a planet

  • Newton: Concept of gravity, inertia, force, action-reaction laws, and law of universal gravity

Stars and Galaxies

• Which star colors have the highest surface temperatures?

  • Blue

• Which star colors have the lowest surface temperatures?

  • Red

• What is the source of the Sun’s energy (name the chemical reaction)? What is the fuel

  used?

  • Hydrogen

  • Fusion reactions

• What is the closest spiral galaxy to us?

  • Andromeda Galaxies

• Key Terms:

  • Milky Way: great systems of stars in space which revolve around a central point

  • Apparent Magnitude:

    • Spica: 1.0

    • Betelgeuse: 0.4

    • Sirius:-1.4

    • Mars: -2.5

    • Jupiter: -2.8

    • Venus: -4

    • Full Moon: -13

    • Sun: -27

  • Sunspots (what happens at their peak)?

    • solar flares and solar storms

Solar System

• Which planets are the Jovian planets?

  • Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune

• Which planets are terrestrial planets?

  • Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars

• Where is most of the mass in the solar system contained?

  • Sun

• Why does Venus have the highest surface temperatures compared to the other planets in

  the solar system?

  • Due to the Greenhouse Effect on Venus

• Describe the surface of Mars.

  • Ancient inactive volcanoes and lava flows, dried up river beds, polar ice caps, deep canyons, and valleys

• Which element is the most abundant in Jupiter’s and Saturn’s atmospheres?

  • Hydrogen

• The moons of Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune have __________ as the most common type

  of volcano found there.

  • Cryovolcano

• Where can we find long-period and short-period comets?

  • Long-period comets come from the oort cloud while short-period comets come from the Kuiper belt

• Describe the parts of a comet.

  • Nucleus - solid, center part of the comet made of rock particles and frozen gas

  • Coma - fuzzy, glowing head around the nucleus

  • Tail - pieces of the nucleus knocked off by the Sun’s radiation (only forms when close to the Sun. Always points away from Sun.)

• Key Terms:

  • Meteoroids - stony or metallic particles in space. Smaller in size than asteroids. “solar system leftovers”

  • Meteorites - a burnt-up meteoroid which hits the surface of the Earth

  • Great Red Spot - massive storm 26,000 miles long and 8,00 miles across

  • Great Dark Spot - massive storm the size of Earth

  • Olympus Mon - Shield volcano on Mars

  • Asteroids - jagged chunks of rock (some with ice/frozen gases that orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter)

The Sun and the Moon

• Sunspot cycle length

  • 11 years

• What are lunar craters named after?

  • Famous scientists and astronomers

• What is the tilt of the Moon’s orbit around Earth?

  • Moon’s orbit is at a 5* angle

• Describe the likely origins of lunar maria.

  • Oceans and rivers, maria is mostly made up of basalt

• Key Terms:

  • Prominences - flaming streamers of hot gas ejected from Sun’s surface

  • Sunspots - dark patches on the surface of the Sun. “refrigerators of the Sun” - 7,200 *F

  • Aurora Borealis - northern lights. Auroras are shifting bands of light in the atmosphere of polar regions of Earth

  • Corona - the Sun’s outer atmosphere around the chromosphere “white halo” or crown. can only be seen during total eclipse.