Untitled Flashcards Set

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an 18th-century intellectual movement that emphasized reason, science, individual liberty, and the questioning of traditional authority, including monarchies and the Church. Enlightenment thinkers promoted ideas such as democracy, secularism, and human rights, which influenced revolutions and modern political thought.

John Locke; Second Treatise of Civil Government

John Locke (1632–1704) was an English philosopher who argued for natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the idea that government derives its power from the consent of the governed. In Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690), he advocated for limited government, the right to overthrow tyrannical rulers, and the foundation of modern democracy.

Adam Smith

A Scottish economist and philosopher, Adam Smith (1723–1790) is best known for his work The Wealth of Nations (1776), where he laid the foundation for modern capitalism. He argued for free markets, minimal government interference in the economy (laissez-faire), and the "invisible hand" theory, which suggested that individuals pursuing self-interest contribute to economic prosperity.

Baron de Montesquieu

A French political philosopher (1689–1755), Montesquieu is famous for his book The Spirit of the Laws (1748), where he advocated for the separation of powers within government (executive, legislative, and judicial branches). His ideas influenced the U.S. Constitution and modern democratic systems.

Voltaire

A French writer and philosopher (1694–1778), Voltaire was a vocal advocate of free speech, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state. He criticized organized religion and absolute monarchy, using satire to expose corruption and hypocrisy.

Deists

Deists believed in a rational, non-interventionist God who created the universe but did not interfere in human affairs. They rejected religious dogma, miracles, and divine revelation, instead emphasizing reason and moral conduct. Many Enlightenment thinkers, including Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin, were influenced by Deism.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau; The Social Contract

Rousseau (1712–1778) was a French philosopher who argued in The Social Contract (1762) that legitimate government must be based on the "general will" of the people. He supported direct democracy, civic virtue, and the idea that individuals should submit to the collective good for true freedom.

Continental Congress

The Continental Congress was the governing body of the American colonies during the American Revolution (1774–1789). It organized resistance against Britain, drafted the Declaration of Independence, and managed the Revolutionary War effort.

Declaration of Independence

Adopted on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was a document written primarily by Thomas Jefferson that formally declared the American colonies' separation from Britain. It emphasized natural rights, self-governance, and grievances against King George III.

French Revolution

A social and political upheaval in France (1789–1799) that sought to overthrow the monarchy and establish a more democratic government. The revolution led to radical reforms, including the abolition of feudalism, the rise of nationalism, and ultimately, Napoleon's rule.

Louis XVI

King of France (1774–1792), Louis XVI faced increasing unrest due to economic crises and widespread discontent. He was eventually overthrown during the French Revolution and executed by guillotine in 1793.

Estates General

A legislative assembly in pre-revolutionary France that represented the three social classes (clergy, nobility, and commoners). In 1789, it was convened by Louis XVI but ultimately led to the formation of the National Assembly and the start of the revolution.

National Assembly

A revolutionary legislature formed in 1789 by the Third Estate (commoners) after they broke away from the Estates General. It played a key role in drafting new laws and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

A foundational document of the French Revolution, adopted in 1789, which outlined individual freedoms and equality before the law. Inspired by Enlightenment principles, it declared the sovereignty of the people and rights such as freedom of speech, property, and security.

Olympe de Gouges; Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen

A feminist writer, Olympe de Gouges (1748–1793) challenged the male-centered Declaration of the Rights of Man by drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Women (1791), advocating for gender equality and women's rights. She was executed during the Reign of Terror.

Reign of Terror

A radical phase of the French Revolution (1793–1794) led by the Jacobins and Robespierre. It was marked by mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution, including King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, via guillotine.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A French military general who seized power in 1799 and declared himself Emperor in 1804. Napoleon expanded France’s empire across Europe, implemented legal reforms, and was ultimately defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo.

Civil Code (Napoleonic Code)

A legal system established by Napoleon in 1804, ensuring equality before the law, property rights, and legal protections. It influenced many modern legal systems but also restricted women’s rights.

Haitian Revolution

A successful slave revolt (1791–1804) in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti), leading to the abolition of slavery and the establishment of Haiti as the first black republic.

Toussaint Louverture

A former enslaved man and leader of the Haitian Revolution, Louverture led military campaigns that defeated the French, Spanish, and British forces. He helped draft Haiti’s first constitution but was captured by the French in 1802.

Simon Bolivar

A Venezuelan revolutionary leader who played a key role in the independence movements of South American countries, including Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.

Gran Colombia

A short-lived political union (1819–1831) of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama, led by Simon Bolivar, which ultimately collapsed due to regional tensions.

Caudillos

Military strongmen who ruled Latin American countries after independence, often through force and personalist rule, rather than democratic institutions.

Conservatism

A political ideology favoring tradition, monarchy, and social stability. Conservatives opposed rapid change and sought to preserve established institutions.

Liberalism

A political ideology emphasizing individual rights, democracy, free markets, and limited government. Liberals opposed absolute monarchy and supported personal freedoms.

John Stuart Mill

A British philosopher and political economist (1806–1873) who championed individual liberty, freedom of speech, and women's rights in works such as On Liberty (1859).

William Wilberforce

A British politician who led the movement to abolish the transatlantic slave trade. His efforts resulted in Britain banning the trade in 1807 and slavery itself in 1833.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An early feminist thinker who wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), arguing for women's education and equality in society.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

A leader of the U.S. women’s suffrage movement, she co-authored the Declaration of Sentiments (1848) at the Seneca Falls Convention, demanding equal rights for women.

Nationalism

A political ideology promoting loyalty to a shared culture, history, or nation. Nationalists sought to unite people with common language, traditions, and history under independent states.

Giuseppe Mazzini

An Italian nationalist leader who founded Young Italy, a movement pushing for Italian unification through revolution and popular uprising.

Zionism; Theodor Herzl

A nationalist movement advocating for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, led by Theodor Herzl (1860–1904). Zionism eventually led to the establishment of Israel in 1948.

Congress of Vienna

A 1815 diplomatic conference that sought to restore order after Napoleon’s defeat by reinstating monarchies and balancing power among European nations.

Klemens von Metternich

An Austrian diplomat who led the Congress of Vienna, promoting conservative policies and the restoration of monarchy to maintain stability in Europe.

Camillo de Cavour

A key leader in Italian unification, he used diplomacy and alliances to strengthen the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and unify northern Italy.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

A military leader who contributed to Italian unification by leading his "Redshirts" army to conquer southern Italy, later merging it with Cavour's northern territories.

Otto von Bismarck

The German statesman who unified Germany through a series of wars and diplomatic strategies, using Realpolitik to achieve his goals.

Realpolitik

A pragmatic approach to politics that prioritizes practical goals and power over ideological or moral considerations, often associated with Bismarck.

This method allowed him to manipulate alliances and conflicts, ultimately leading to the establishment of the German Empire in 1871.